Kraken Curriculum
|
If you have suggestions to contribute to the Curriculum please send an email to [email protected] |
Phase 1
1. The Bigger Picture
1.1 50,000 Foot View
50,000 Foot View Topics
The Altruistic Genie: Aquariums in the 21st Century - Mark Smith, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
Public aquaria aspire to be centers for research, conservation, and education, as well as models for sustainability. In this endeavor public aquaria inspire their visitors through representation of marine and freshwater ecosystems, displaying a wide variety of aquatic organisms. To remain effective and relevant aquaria must: (1) Set an example of sustainability; (2) Continue to optimize industry best practice; (3) Increase pure and applied research activities; (4) Increase conservation activities, esp. in situ; (5) Advance well-researched and practical advocacy; and (6) Augment up-to-date and effective education. Aquaria must actively advance each of these domains, more coherently police industry best practice, better connect their visitors to the wild spaces they represent, and work together to more effectively communicate their value to the environment and society. The New England Aquarium alone presents over 850 different species. When selecting species for exhibition, it is critical to consider the following: justifiable rationales for acquiring a species; available infrastructure and operational capacity; animal husbandry capacity and animal welfare implications; a long-term deaccession plan; and sustainable sources for chosen display animals. The New England Aquarium addresses these demands through a structured planning process, using a set of Strategic Program Criteria and an Exhibition Species Selection Flowchart, implemented through a sustainable collection committee. One mechanism employed at the Aquarium to improve collection sustainability is the strategic breeding and rearing of fish species highly demanded within the industry, yet rarely (or not yet) bred in human care. Examples include the blue chromis (Chromis cyanea), lookdowns (Selene vomer) and the smallmouth grunt (Haemulon chrysargyreum). In addition to careful stewardship of its living collection, the New England Aquarium regularly reviews its animal food sources to ensure sustainable practice is employed.
Act Now or Say Goodbye - Dr. Paul Loiselle
Full Abstract
Fishes as broadly defined are the most specious vertebrate group, by conservative estimate numbering c. 33 000 species. Although free-standing fresh waters comprise only .05% of the earth’s hydrosphere, they are home to 48% of described fish species. Given that the effectively insular nature of freshwater biotopes renders them particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic degradation, it is hardly surprising that freshwater fishes are disproportionately represented in the tally of species known to have disappeared over the past century or presently at serious risk of extinction. The I.U.C.N. recognized 2263 species of freshwater fish as Critically Endangered or Endangered. Its alarming size notwithstanding, this number significantly underestimates the actual number of endangered freshwater fishes, as the conservation status of most species remains to be determined.. Habitat loss due to unsustainable exploitation of groundwater in desert regions, dam construction, mining and deforestation in more mesic regions and the impact of invasive exotic species throughout the world are the principal factors driving this impending extinction tsunami.
While the preservation of viable habitat is the preferred method of assuring the survival of threatened species, political and economic realities preclude the timely implementation of this strategy in most highly biodiverse regions. Captive breeding represents the only viable means of assuring the near-term survival of a significant number of these threatened fishes. The husbandry expertise and oft-proclaimed conservation mission of public aquaria as broadly defined would suggest that they are obvious candidates for a leading role in such efforts. The current situation in North America suggests that reality is otherwise. Institutional participation in the Lake Victoria Cichlid Species Survival Plan, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums’ only formally constituted aquatic conservation program, has declined from 31 in 1993 to 10 in 2016. Notwithstanding the modest resources such undertakings require, efforts to establish comparable programs for endangered North American desert and Malagasy fishes have foundered due to lack of institutional participation. This lack of commitment to a proven means of saving endangered species from extinction calls into question the oft-proclaimed commitment of public aquaria and zoos to the preservation of global biodiversity.
While it hardly excuses the industry’s failure in this regard, the scope of the threat to freshwater fishes is such that even the total commitment of institutional resources world-wide would be insufficient to the task of saving a significant percentage of the world’s endangered freshwater fishes. This objective can only be accomplished by tapping into the expertise and resources that both serious aquarium hobbyists and the ornamental fish industry can bring to the effort and harmonizing captive breeding programs with in situ conservation programs in range states. Public aquariums are potentially well placed to coordinate such efforts. However, before they can credibly position themselves to assume such a role, they must demonstrate their conservation bona fides by committing significant resources to existing captive breeding efforts and broadening the scope of such initiatives to include the fish communities of other threatened freshwater biomes.
While the preservation of viable habitat is the preferred method of assuring the survival of threatened species, political and economic realities preclude the timely implementation of this strategy in most highly biodiverse regions. Captive breeding represents the only viable means of assuring the near-term survival of a significant number of these threatened fishes. The husbandry expertise and oft-proclaimed conservation mission of public aquaria as broadly defined would suggest that they are obvious candidates for a leading role in such efforts. The current situation in North America suggests that reality is otherwise. Institutional participation in the Lake Victoria Cichlid Species Survival Plan, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums’ only formally constituted aquatic conservation program, has declined from 31 in 1993 to 10 in 2016. Notwithstanding the modest resources such undertakings require, efforts to establish comparable programs for endangered North American desert and Malagasy fishes have foundered due to lack of institutional participation. This lack of commitment to a proven means of saving endangered species from extinction calls into question the oft-proclaimed commitment of public aquaria and zoos to the preservation of global biodiversity.
While it hardly excuses the industry’s failure in this regard, the scope of the threat to freshwater fishes is such that even the total commitment of institutional resources world-wide would be insufficient to the task of saving a significant percentage of the world’s endangered freshwater fishes. This objective can only be accomplished by tapping into the expertise and resources that both serious aquarium hobbyists and the ornamental fish industry can bring to the effort and harmonizing captive breeding programs with in situ conservation programs in range states. Public aquariums are potentially well placed to coordinate such efforts. However, before they can credibly position themselves to assume such a role, they must demonstrate their conservation bona fides by committing significant resources to existing captive breeding efforts and broadening the scope of such initiatives to include the fish communities of other threatened freshwater biomes.
For the love of fish, we're in it together ‐ the importance of the aquarium hobby to public aquaria - Laura Simmons, Cairns Marine
Full Abstract
The aquarium industry is under attack. Both public and private aquaria are being demonized by activist groups around the world. This criticism is causing a divide in an industry that should be united. As public aquarium aquarists we need to understand the link between our businesses and the hobby; how private and public aquaria are inextricably linked. Most innovation in aquarium keeping has come from the private sector or by companies supplying it. Public aquaria are making important contributions like education and conservation but the reality is that the world of aquarium keeping is driven by hobbyists, whether it be lighting technology, advances in life support systems, water chemistry/quality analysis or provision of livestock, suppliers could never survive on public institutions alone. The entire industry is under scrutiny, we need to be allies. Supporting and working together is the only way to survive and continue the work we love.
1.2 Welfare
Welfare Topics
Welfare and sustainability of live animal collections for public aquariums - Chris Andrews, SEA LIFE Aquarium
Full Abstract
Unlike zoos, and aquariums specializing in freshwater organisms, a large proportion of the marine fish, elasmobranchs and invertebrates in public aquariums are obtained from the wild, exposing them to potential criticism regarding how the animals are collected, and their care and welfare during the acquisition, transport and acclimation process. This presentation with discuss one approach to better understand the supply chains used to provide these wild‐caught animals for public aquariums, and how the results may be used to improve animal welfare and – ultimately – sustainability practices.
Water Science in an Aquarium: How Does It Fit, Where Does It Fit, and How Do We Utilize It? - Kasie Regnier, Monterey Bay Aquarium
Full Abstract
The Applied Research department at the Monterey Bay Aquarium consists of 14 specialists from a number of different fields of water science, with a vast majority of staff originally hailing from outside the aquarium industry. Since the 1990s days of providing water quality data to aquarists, the team has grown dramatically into an interdisciplinary department working in water quality, microbiology, environmental science, research, exhibit design, and life support design. The journey and growth behind how these specific positions have been born, have evolved, and have finally settled into a new structure in 2019 provides an interesting model in which to examine the role of these sciences, and scientists, in our industry. Where does water science actually fit in, and how can niche scientific roles come together cohesively to bridge husbandry, facilities, and exhibit design components within a single facility?
Aquatic Animal Welfare Discussion - Allen McDowell and Dr. Lara Metrione, NC Aquarium on Roanoke Island and SEZARC
Full Abstract
This discussion includes the new AZA Welfare Assessment standard and the SEZARC workshop held at White Oak.
A New Kind of Fish Tattoo: Better Medical Management through Individual Identification of an Aquatic Collection - Megan Olhasso, California Science Center
Full Abstract
As advancements are made in aquatic medicine, it is becoming crucial to maintain accurate, thorough records of individual animal treatments, movements and daily behaviors. Individual identification is the backbone that makes trending medical history possible; allowing for better decision making and interpreting success of treatment and of management choices. When fish are not individually identified, they become lost to follow up as soon as they leave the hospital system. It becomes impossible to determine if the next similar case is a reoccurrence or a new case. At the California Science Center, we have implemented four ways of individualizing fish: visible implant elastomer for ‘fish tattoos’, notching, microchips and photo identification. The most broadly functional technique is visible implant elastomer (VIE). By grouping similar-looking species of fish into a spreadsheet, we are able to ensure that two fish cannot be mistaken for one another. It allows our divers to give accurate and detailed information about feeding behaviors, which then enables us to track medical treatments and easily communicate observations. VIE does not work on all dermal types. The use of notching and/or microchips on elasmobranches has proven to be an excellent way of maintaining current, accurate information and we are seeing similar results using photo identification as descriptors in marine invertebrate medical care – as we continue to explore new options in identification. Being proactive about individually identifying our collection has mainstreamed the flow of communication about individual animals rather than groups of animals. We are able to follow cases and determine if our treatment and management plans are successful. It allows us to recognize medical trends, identify problems, and create a data base of information that makes medical records and daily husbandry logs effective resources.
Killing Keiko: A Cautionary Tale of One Whale - Mark A. Simmons, Executive Vice President, Ocean Embassy, Inc. and Managing Partner, OERCA (Present), Director of the Keiko Animal Behavior Team on the Keiko Release Project (Past)
Full Abstract
Millions of Free Willy movie enthusiasts have been led to believe that Keiko’s return to the wild was a triumph. After the syndication of the film Blackfish, Keiko’s story once again became a rallying cry for anti-zoo proponents calling for the release of other killer whales in zoological care. But according to author Mark Simmons, director of the Keiko Animal Behavior Team on the Keiko Release Project, the whale’s riveting story is one of unnecessary tragedy. This lecture, Killing Keiko: A Cautionary Tale of One Whale, unveils the shocking evolution and collapse of the whale’s rehabilitation, covering his final trek across the North Atlantic to his heart-wrenching death in Norway. Simmons discusses the most influential factors, covering theories behind the rehabilitation plan, behavioral excesses and deficits, the organizations role in the outcome and the concept of captivity and the modern zoo. In life, Keiko was undoubtedly the most famous whale in history. In death, he became the most famous case of animal abuse the world cannot yet fathom. Simmons illuminates the true story of Keiko’s journey and shows why it is more important now than ever before.
Mark began his career in 1987 in marine mammal behavioral sciences, working almost exclusively with killer whales. In 1998 he formed a consulting firm, Wildlife International Network along with highly regarded marine mammal expert and close friend Robin Friday. The following April of 1999, Simmons joined the Keiko Release Project as the director of animal husbandry and led the behavior team on-site in Iceland. There he authored and applied the behavioral rehabilitation blueprint for reintroduction that gained approval from the Icelandic Ministry of Fisheries for Keiko’s formal release. Simmons went on to create Ocean Embassy, whereby his team assists governments on protective marine legislation, participates in ongoing research with marine mammals and is heavily involved in the rescue and rehabilitation of sick and stranded animals. He has provided consulting on marine mammal health assessment and recovery, training program evaluation and development, and zoological program management to numerous agencies such as NOAA/NMFS and facilities worldwide in the United States, Mexico, Singapore, Bahamas, U.A.E., Philippines, Iceland, Jamaica, Panama, China and St. Lucia. Simmons also created and continues to provide visionary leadership of a large-scale research and conservation database called OERCA that serves global wildlife management needs. He has taught marine mammal behavioral science at the University of Miami and conducted numerous seminars and public lectures on the Keiko Release Project.
Mark began his career in 1987 in marine mammal behavioral sciences, working almost exclusively with killer whales. In 1998 he formed a consulting firm, Wildlife International Network along with highly regarded marine mammal expert and close friend Robin Friday. The following April of 1999, Simmons joined the Keiko Release Project as the director of animal husbandry and led the behavior team on-site in Iceland. There he authored and applied the behavioral rehabilitation blueprint for reintroduction that gained approval from the Icelandic Ministry of Fisheries for Keiko’s formal release. Simmons went on to create Ocean Embassy, whereby his team assists governments on protective marine legislation, participates in ongoing research with marine mammals and is heavily involved in the rescue and rehabilitation of sick and stranded animals. He has provided consulting on marine mammal health assessment and recovery, training program evaluation and development, and zoological program management to numerous agencies such as NOAA/NMFS and facilities worldwide in the United States, Mexico, Singapore, Bahamas, U.A.E., Philippines, Iceland, Jamaica, Panama, China and St. Lucia. Simmons also created and continues to provide visionary leadership of a large-scale research and conservation database called OERCA that serves global wildlife management needs. He has taught marine mammal behavioral science at the University of Miami and conducted numerous seminars and public lectures on the Keiko Release Project.
1.3 Sustainability & Collection Planning
Sustainability and Collection Planning Topics
Sustainable Institutional Collection Planning - Mark Smith, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
Public aquaria aspire to be centers for research, conservation, and education, as well as models for sustainability. In this endeavor public aquaria inspire their visitors through representation of marine and freshwater ecosystems by displaying a wide variety of aquatic organisms. The New England Aquarium alone presents over 850 different species. When selecting species for exhibition, it is critical to consider the following: justifiable rationales for acquiring a species; available infrastructure and operational capacity; animal husbandry capacity and animal welfare implications; a longterm deaccession plan; and sustainable sources for chosen display animals. The New England Aquarium addresses these demands through a structured planning process, using a set of Strategic Program Criteria and an Exhibition Species Selection Flowchart, implemented through a sustainable collection committee. Display animals are sourced through: (1) sustainable wild collection by aquarium personnel; (2) well-managed wild fisheries, where ecosystems are preserved and local communities benefit; (3) reputable, sustainable commercial collectors and aquaculture companies; (4) trading of surplus animals with other reputable institutions; and (5) culture of species breeding within the Aquarium. One mechanism employed at the Aquarium to improve collection sustainability is the strategic breeding and rearing of fish species highly demanded within the industry, yet rarely (or not yet) bred in human care. Examples include the blue chromis (Chromis cyanea), lookdowns (Selene vomer) and the smallmouth grunt (Haemulon chrysargyreum). In addition to careful stewardship of its living collection, the New England Aquarium regularly reviews its animal food sources to ensure sustainable practice is employed.
Aquatic Collection Sustainability - Hap Fatzinger, North Carolina Aquariums
Full Abstract
Aquatic collection sustainability has been a priority across our facilities and AZA for decades. Great work has been accomplished and AZA animal programs continue to grow and build upon the foundation of work developed by leaders in our field. Over the past year, a surge of efforts has captured the attention and support of AZA and institutional leadership. This presentation will discuss the development of the AZA Board‐approved Aquatic Collections Sustainability Special Committee, outline the five priorities identified for action and share future opportunities for supporting the work.
Collaborative Aquatic Population Management Programs of the Association of the Zoos and Aquariums - Paula Carlson, Dallas World Aquarium
Full Abstract
With the accelerating decline of ocean habitats, species diversity and fish and invertebrate populations from anthropogenic sourced environmental changes and the ever increasing popularity of public aquariums worldwide, aquatic animal populations in human care require focused and collaborative management and creative sourcing strategies more than ever. In January 2016, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) adopted its “Sustainability Considerations for Developing an Aquatic Invertebrate & Fish Collection Plan” to support conscientious stewardship of aquatic natural resources and to ensure that members create and maintain administrative policies and animal collection plans that support sustainable practices. The plan approaches animal collection sustainability within the AZA aquarium community from several angles and reinforces the need for effective collaborative management of aquatic collections in human care. Positioned in strong support of this collaborative effort are the AZA Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), their Species Survival Plans (SSPs) and studbooks. Currently, the AZA’s Wildlife Conservation Management Committee (WCMC) oversees 500 cooperatively managed programs. Of these 500 programs, three aquatic TAGs, the Marine Fish TAG, the Freshwater Fish TAG and the Aquatic Invertebrate TAG, manage 40 individual SSPs and studbooks. These programs are the epicenter of aquatic conservation and population management within AZA. While the TAG’s sole charge is to recommend taxa for cooperatively managed programs and to support collaborative approaches to meet collection needs of member institutions, TAGs and their SSPs also serve as taxa experts and conservation champions to the AZA community at large. As a crucial and complimentary component of the new AZA collection sustainability plan, these animal management programs provide the labor, leadership, expertise and vision needed to address the needs of the AZA member institutions now and into the future.
Collaborative Aquatic Population Management Programs of the Association of the Zoos and Aquariums - Charles Delbeek Steinhart Aquarium
Full Abstract
With the accelerating decline of ocean habitats, species diversity and fish and invertebrate populations from anthropogenic sourced environmental changes and the ever increasing popularity of public aquariums worldwide, aquatic animal populations in human care require focused and collaborative management and creative sourcing strategies more than ever. In January 2016, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) adopted its “Sustainability Considerations for Developing an Aquatic Invertebrate & Fish Collection Plan” to support conscientious stewardship of aquatic natural resources and to ensure that members create and maintain administrative policies and animal collection plans that support sustainable practices. The plan approaches animal collection sustainability within the AZA aquarium community from several angles and reinforces the need for effective collaborative management of aquatic collections in human care. Positioned in strong support of this collaborative effort are the AZA Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), their Species Survival Plans (SSPs) and studbooks. Currently, the AZA’s Wildlife Conservation Management Committee (WCMC) oversees 500 cooperatively managed programs. Of these 500 programs, three aquatic TAGs, the Marine Fish TAG, the Freshwater Fish TAG and the Aquatic Invertebrate TAG, manage 40 individual SSPs and studbooks. These programs are the epicenter of aquatic conservation and population management within AZA. While the TAG’s sole charge is to recommend taxa for cooperatively managed programs and to support collaborative approaches to meet collection needs of member institutions, TAGs and their SSPs also serve as taxa experts and conservation champions to the AZA community at large. As a crucial and complimentary component of the new AZA collection sustainability plan, these animal management programs provide the labor, leadership, expertise and vision needed to address the needs of the AZA member institutions now and into the future.
Collaborative Aquatic Population Management Programs of the Association of the Zoos and Aquariums - George Brandy, Houston Zoo
Full Abstract
With the accelerating decline of ocean habitats, species diversity and fish and invertebrate populations from anthropogenic sourced environmental changes and the ever increasing popularity of public aquariums worldwide, aquatic animal populations in human care require focused and collaborative management and creative sourcing strategies more than ever. In January 2016, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) adopted its “Sustainability Considerations for Developing an Aquatic Invertebrate & Fish Collection Plan” to support conscientious stewardship of aquatic natural resources and to ensure that members create and maintain administrative policies and animal collection plans that support sustainable practices. The plan approaches animal collection sustainability within the AZA aquarium community from several angles and reinforces the need for effective collaborative management of aquatic collections in human care. Positioned in strong support of this collaborative effort are the AZA Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), their Species Survival Plans (SSPs) and studbooks. Currently, the AZA’s Wildlife Conservation Management Committee (WCMC) oversees 500 cooperatively managed programs. Of these 500 programs, three aquatic TAGs, the Marine Fish TAG, the Freshwater Fish TAG and the Aquatic Invertebrate TAG, manage 40 individual SSPs and studbooks. These programs are the epicenter of aquatic conservation and population management within AZA. While the TAG’s sole charge is to recommend taxa for cooperatively managed programs and to support collaborative approaches to meet collection needs of member institutions, TAGs and their SSPs also serve as taxa experts and conservation champions to the AZA community at large. As a crucial and complimentary component of the new AZA collection sustainability plan, these animal management programs provide the labor, leadership, expertise and vision needed to address the needs of the AZA member institutions now and into the future.
European Aquatic Breeding Programs (FAITAG) - Max Janse, Royal Burgers' Zoo
Full Abstract
The oceans, which encompass 70% of the Earth’s surface, have a major effect on the global environment. To understand the mechanisms behind climate change and abnormal weather patterns, we must closely study the oceans. There is also a need to both study and promote the use of the diverse and vast developments in marine technology and observational equipment to learn about the oceans and the conservation practices of the organisms that reside in them. The Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) was established in 1971 as a core research institution, both domestically and internationally, to carry out marine exploration and research into underwater technology. JAMSTEC is also making rapid progress in the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) utilizing the deep-ocean exploration ship, the Chikyu, to predict changes in the Earth’s environment and discover the inner layers of the planet, while they also explore the origins of life and the extremophile organisms that thrive in the low temperature and high pressure deep-ocean environment. The Enoshima Aquarium began collaborative research with JAMSTEC in 2004. Through the Enoshima Aquarium’s exhibitions of deep sea life and the deep-sea submersible Shinkai 2000, we will show you the conservation efforts that are being made towards the ocean ecosystem and all of the biodiversity of marine life.
Are Your Fish Legal? An Analysis of the Regulatory and Permitting for Wild Sourced Display Animals out of Florida and the Eastern US - Ben Daughtry, Dynasty Marine
Full Abstract
As an active participant in the marine life fishery to public aquariums for more than 3 decades the complexity of fisheries management, reporting, permitting and compliance has increased substantially. Many species are newly being evaluated for additional protections at state, national, and international levels using SAL, HMS, ESA, and CITES. Taking an active part in the fishery management process and being a proactive participant in helping to craft intelligent conservation regulations to insure long term sustainability is essential. Industries hand in developing best practices for legally and properly collecting and shipping these specimens is discussed. The objective within is to help public aquariums to understand what is necessary to ensure that your collection is legal and that aquariums can continue to source wild caught animals in a legal, sustainable, and ethical way into the future.
For the love of fish, we're in it together ‐ the importance of the aquarium hobby to public aquaria - Laura Simmons, Cairns Marine
Full Abstract
The aquarium industry is under attack. Both public and private aquaria are being demonized by activist groups around the world. This criticism is causing a divide in an industry that should be united. As public aquarium aquarists we need to understand the link between our businesses and the hobby; how private and public aquaria are inextricably linked. Most innovation in aquarium keeping has come from the private sector or by companies supplying it. Public aquaria are making important contributions like education and conservation but the reality is that the world of aquarium keeping is driven by hobbyists, whether it be lighting technology, advances in life support systems, water chemistry/quality analysis or provision of livestock, suppliers could never survive on public institutions alone. The entire industry is under scrutiny, we need to be allies. Supporting and working together is the only way to survive and continue the work we love.
Eat This, Not That! Raising Aquarium Animals to be Responsible Seafood Consumers - Michelle Cho, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
The New England Aquarium’s Conservation Department works with the Aquarium’s Animal Care Team to regularly assess the source fisheries of the fishes and invertebrates they feed to the collection animals. Most of these fishes and invertebrates are ‘forage’ species, which have unique life-history characteristics and play a vital role in the food web, feeding the populations many marine animals in the wild. The internal assessments focus on the impacts these fisheries have on the surrounding environment by evaluating the following: the health of the target species population; the effectiveness of the way the fisheries are managed; the amount and composition of bycatch in the fisheries, whether or not they interact with protected, threatened, or endangered species; and the extent of fishing gears’ contact with the bottom habitat. The results of the assessments are used in conjunction with animal nutritional and health needs, taste, size, and texture preferences, and other important factors to distinguish between different species choices and formulate recommendations for alternative species (including aquacultured species), where applicable. To date, the Animal Care Team has tried new products, including farmed trout and invasive green crabs, switched some sources to less impactful fisheries, including squid and smelt, and committed to diversifying food items for the animals.he New England Aquarium’s Conservation Department works with the Aquarium’s Animal Care Team to regularly assess the source fisheries of the fishes and invertebrates they feed to the collection animals. Most of these fishes and invertebrates are ‘forage’ species, which have unique life-history characteristics and play a vital role in the food web, feeding the populations many marine animals in the wild. The internal assessments focus on the impacts these fisheries have on the surrounding environment by evaluating the following: the health of the target species population; the effectiveness of the way the fisheries are managed; the amount and composition of bycatch in the fisheries, whether or not they interact with protected, threatened, or endangered species; and the extent of fishing gears’ contact with the bottom habitat. The results of the assessments are used in conjunction with animal nutritional and health needs, taste, size, and texture preferences, and other important factors to distinguish between different species choices and formulate recommendations for alternative species (including aquacultured species), where applicable. To date, the Animal Care Team has tried new products, including farmed trout and invasive green crabs, switched some sources to less impactful fisheries, including squid and smelt, and committed to diversifying food items for the animals.
1.4 Beyond Our Collections
Beyond Our Collections Topics
PROJECT PIABA: 20 YEARS OF STUDYING THE AQUARIUM FISH TRADE; NOW TIME FOR AQUARIUMS TO TAKE ACTION - Scott Dowd, Project Piaba
Full Abstract
In 2016, nautiluses (Family Nautilidae) were adopted into Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). The listing requires countries to provide non-detrimental findings (NDFs) showing that export of the species does not affect wild populations. However, there are no standard methods for how countries determine the NDFs. Often, a consequence of increased regulation is illegal trade. Simply placing a species on CITES does not guarantee its survival, as countless examples show. Thus, it is paramount that all stakeholders involved in the successful CITES proposal continue to expand on work already done. In reality, the success of CITES might be better gauged by how long a species remains on CITES. As education, awareness, and management plans improve, thereby increasing populations, a species would no longer meet the requirements for CITES and should be de-listed, resulting in a success! The road to de-list nautiluses starts now.
Supplemental:
Project Piaba for Ornamental Fish - Scott Dowd, Project Piaba
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UColBkR8Xp-3JceosHjxsVrg
Supplemental:
Project Piaba for Ornamental Fish - Scott Dowd, Project Piaba
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UColBkR8Xp-3JceosHjxsVrg
A Roadmap to Using CITES Successfully? The Recent Listing of Nautiluses - Gregory Jeff Barord, PhD, Central Campus
Full Abstract
In 2016, nautiluses (Family Nautilidae) were adopted into Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). The listing requires countries to provide non-detrimental findings (NDFs) showing that export of the species does not affect wild populations. However, there are no standard methods for how countries determine the NDFs. Often, a consequence of increased regulation is illegal trade. Simply placing a species on CITES does not guarantee its survival, as countless examples show. Thus, it is paramount that all stakeholders involved in the successful CITES proposal continue to expand on work already done. In reality, the success of CITES might be better gauged by how long a species remains on CITES. As education, awareness, and management plans improve, thereby increasing populations, a species would no longer meet the requirements for CITES and should be de-listed, resulting in a success! The road to de-list nautiluses starts now.
Working as a Global Conservation Network: Linking with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Kira Mileham, Kent Carpenter, Rob Bullock, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC), Old Dominion University – IUCN Global Marine Species Assessment, The Deep Aquarium
Full Abstract
Business as usual is no longer an option. The aquarium community is facing a huge challenge to protect the species we care for; of the nearly 80,000 species assessed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, almost 30% are threatened with extinction. Conservation efforts continue to be surpassed by the pressures on biodiversity, especially in the aquatic realms. Aquariums are critical players in protecting species in the wild, utilizing funds, expertise, facilities and public profiles to drive conservation efforts within their organizations and in the field. However, in the face of so many challenges, we need to collaborate strategically, combining our differing strengths and resources. To do this, many aquariums are strengthening relationships with the IUCN Species Survival Commission. These relationships focus on collaboration for Red List Assessments, conservation planning, and global networking to play a more integrated and global role alongside the world’s largest conservation network.
1.5 Diversity, Equity, & Inclusion
Diversity, Equity, & Inclusion Topics
Disrupting Homogeneity: Strategies for Intersectional Engagement
Corina Newsome
Breaking the Mold - Developing Creative Diversity in a Husbandry Team
Tinus Beukes, Two Oceans Aquarium
Full Abstract
Public aquariums are increasingly committing to elevating exhibits from humble glass boxes that keep fishes, to beautiful works of art. Marketing new exhibits by emphasizing their aesthetic appeal along the lines of “living art” has become common practice. Despite this emphasis, most advertisements for husbandry positions at public aquariums continue to favor scientists, typically requiring a B.sc. degree for employment as an entry-level aquarist. Qualified visual artists are inadvertently excluded, fated to apply their skills as hobbyists, or finding expression in commercial aquascaping companies. Is it desirable and possible to redress this imbalance? What are the challenges, benefits and risks in pursuing a relaxed employment policy that encourages the inclusion of artists in a husbandry team? How does one mentor a qualified artist to become a competent aquarist? This presentation provides answers by examining the history and development of the husbandry team at one of the leading public aquariums on the African continent. The Two Oceans Aquarium has thrived over the last twenty years by utilizing an employment policy that value staff diversity beyond scientific qualification, enabling the appointment and mentoring of visual artists to rise to senior levels on the husbandry team. Practical insight is presented, including objective criteria for evaluating artistic candidates. The presentation highlights the invaluable benefits of increased staff diversity, and demonstrates how fostering creative potential affords new ways of thinking, - imagining and of connecting visitors with our exhibits and the broader environment.
Panel on Diversity, Equity and Inclusion
Jennie Janssen, Meghan Holst, Arnel Bautista, Sean Hill
Full Abstract
The advantages of having diverse teams, in any profession, greatly stem from having a wider spectrum of backgrounds, life experiences, perspectives, and ideas. This diversity in thought directly leads to more thorough preparation and greater innovation. To build more diverse teams, intentional actions are required at all career levels, and these actions generally fall into two categories: 1) increasing the number of minority professionals, and 2) retaining current and future minority professionals. For BIPOC (Black, Indiginous, and People Of Color), representation - or the lack thereof - factors into both of these goals, as do financial and social barriers. “But what can one person do about it?” Each person’s individual actions make a difference, whether they be at the individual, departmental, institutional, or industry level. With many people taking individual actions across all levels, more BIPOC-friendly work environments with more inclusive hiring and retention practices can be cultivated.
Poster Presentation:
Increasing and Retaining Minorities in Aquarium and Zoo Science
Meghan M. Holst and Jennie D. Janssen, Minorities in Aquarium & Zoo Science
2. Water Quality Foundations
Water Quality Foundations Topics
Nitrification in Marine Aquarium Systems - Timothy A. Hovanec, Ph.D, DrTim's Aquatics, LLC
Full Abstract
Biodegradable carbon pellets such as Polyhydroxyalkanotes (PHAs), have many uses in the filtration of public aquarium display waters because of their ability to serve as both a consumable carbon source and bacterial substrate. They can be used anaerobically as an external carbon source to transform dissolved nitrate-nitrogen into gaseous nitrogen ( N2), or aerobically as a carbon source to promote bacteria assimilation resulting in reduced concentrations of nitrogen (both ammonia-nitrogen and/or nitrate-nitrogen) and phosphate, creating a nutrient limited environment without the risk of producing hydrogen sulfide. Recent research shows the assimilation of ammonia-nitrogen in soft, acidic waters where biofiltration is typically inhibited due to low pH, occurs at similar volumetric conversion rates as seen in biofilters operating at optimal pH (6.8 to 8.0). Further, recent research has shown that the introduction of a biodegradable carbon source also can help to eliminate ammonia spikes in newly started biofilters and/or help reduce the impact of shock loading resulting from the fast acclimation of the assimilation process (days) versus traditional nitrification (weeks). Operated anaerobically, nitrate removal rates are between 1.0 - 3.5 g NO3 --N/L pellets/day compared to aerobic removal of nitrate/ammonia between 0.250-0.750 g NO3 --N/L pellets/day. Aerobic PHA consumption rates (15-20 g-PHA consumed/g-N removed) are 5-8 times higher than anaerobic consumptionrates (2-3 g-PHA/g-N). As a result, anaerobic designs are favored for larger operations with control/monitoring capabilities. Aerobic operations can be operated passively and are more appropriate for smaller individual tank systems.
Numbers, Spreadsheets and Graphs: 8 Tips to Effectively Record and Present the Things You Do Every Day - Kailen Gilde, Georgia Aquarium
Full Abstract
Information is critical to maintaining healthy aquatic environments, and most of the tasks that people in zoological roles perform can be tracked, analyzed, reported and stored. Effectively managing data streamlines workflow, reduces analysis time, reveals trends and optimizes processes. Clear presentation makes information easier to understand, and tailoring presentations to different audiences increases the information’s persuasive ability. This presentation will cover 8 tips on working with and presenting data, with each step illustrated using an example data set from Georgia Aquarium. Topics covered will include properly setting up a spreadsheet for different applications, the practical use of basic statistics and programming, and advanced graphing techniques. Microsoft Excel will be used due to its universality, but the principals covered apply to any platform. No prior knowledge of statistics, programming or data management is required, however a basic understanding of Excel will be assumed.
Emerging Techniques for Quantifying Environmental Quality - Mark Smith, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
As an industry we are accustomed to measuring ‘standard’ environmental parameters for the animals in our care, such as nutrients, temperature, pH, etc. However, there are a number of other more esoteric, yet cheap and easy to measure, parameters that can give great insight into the quality of the environment. Examples include: atmospheric CO2, pH differential, and sand grain angularity. In addition, the development of mechanisms to quantify otherwise descriptive data can provide a valuable means to reveal trends and target trouble-shooting activities within living systems. Two examples include the development of a disease condition scale and the examination of relative biological loads within a dynamic system. Critical to the successful implementation of these techniques is a robust mechanism to feed collected information back into the operation of the living systems.
Laboratory Results at Hobbyist Pricing: Optimizing Water Quality Testing for Accuracy and Efficiency - Chris Emmet, Oregon Coast Community College, Aquarium Science Program
Full Abstract
Monitoring of water quality parameters is critical for the proper husbandry of any aquatic animal. As animal welfare and health are primary goals of any well-run facility, top-of-the-line tests are used to measure these parameters. However, these tests can be time-consuming, expensive, or potentially produce waste that requires special disposal. Despite the downsides, these tests give precise results which are essential in a professional organization. In contrast, hobbyist-grade reagents are a “quick and dirty,” solution; less expensive, less precise, but often simpler. I propose that these two methods can be combined, using hobbyist reagents in tandem with proper laboratory technique, and analyzing the resulting color with a spectrophotometer to eliminate imprecision. This process would involve using standard solutions to build a model for individual tests, and then testing with samples of tank water. If successful, this could offer institutions a less-expensive, but still accurate method to measure water quality.
Techniques for Manufacturing Artificial Seawater - Bart Shepherd, Steinhart Aquarium, California Academy of Sciences
Full Abstract
For nearly ninety years, Steinhart Aquarium’s marine exhibits relied upon natural seawater obtained through a Ranney collector system at San Francisco’s Ocean Beach. Despite a recent renovation of the beach pumping station, incoming water quality was highly variable. Because of the inconsistent quality of incoming seawater, specifically low salinity and high phosphate, a decision was made in 2010 to switch to synthetic salt water. In order to optimize this change, a team of biologists, life support operators, and animal health personnel conducted a thorough review of available commercial and institutional salt mixes used in public aquaria throughout the United States. The development of this formulation consisted of careful identification of suppliers, thorough water chemistry analysis and biological testing on live organisms including delicate reef-building corals. Formulations vary and can be tailored to fit local source-freshwater chemistry, the location of the facility in relation to commercial suppliers of major ingredients, and other specific institutional factors.
Pre-Nitrification via Temporary Process Loop: A Means to Reduce Exhibit Construction Time -
Dave Cohrs, University of Utah, National Aquarium
Full Abstract
Establishing stable ammonia-oxidizing (AOB) and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) populations to adequately process nitrogenous wastes in a new aquatic animal life support system typically requires three to six weeks and much longer at temperate to polar temperatures. AOB/NOB colonization of biological media typically begins after system commissioning and adds three to six weeks to construction time before animal introduction can commence. AOB/NOB populations can be established by building a pre-nitrification process loop concurrent with aquatic system fabrication, effectively reducing the construction schedule by three to six weeks. The pre-nitrification loop consists of a sump with a pump that feeds water to filtration components containing appropriate substrate for AOB/NOB growth. These biological reactors in turn supply water back to the sump to complete the closed loop. The sump has significantly less volume than the final aquatic system (10% or less), so daily dosing with a nitrogen source, such as urea, is readily and economically achieved. In 2013, the National Aquarium, Baltimore, applied this technique during the construction of a 275,000-gallon mixed species exhibit. Using regular water quality measurements (ammonia, nitrite, alkalinity, pH and salinity) incremental increases in daily urea additions were calculated for the 30,000-gallon pre-nitrification system. After characteristic ammonia and nitrite peaks, a stable concentration of daily nitrogen input, equivalent to a fully stocked system, was achieved, in less than one month (26 days). Thereafter the filters were fed a stable maintenance dose of urea until the final life support system was connected, at which point daily urea doses were reduced to offset nitrogen input from food fed to stocked fishes. Urea was introduced immediately prior to the sand filters and no ammonia or nitrite was detected in the exhibit, allowing maintenance of AOB/NOB populations without risk to the fishes.
Ozone Management for Aquatic Life Support Systems Aquality I and II - Mark Smith, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
Ozone is an effective treatment resource capable of significantly improving water quality and water clarity in aquatic systems. When applied and managed appropriately ozone can ameliorate contaminants that degrade water quality. However, poorly controlled ozone dosing may result in persistent, highly reactive and toxic byproducts that can harm aquatic life. Reactive ozone by-products are collectively called residual oxidants. By understanding and using the concept of applied ozone dose (AOD), ozone can safely be applied and controlled to achieve desired benefits, while minimizing the risk of overdosing. Monitoring and recording oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), residual oxidants, water turbidity, animal behavior, and husbandry activities are an essential part of a comprehensive ozone-management strategy.
By-products...we’re all going to die! - Dan Bieltz, Oregon Zoo
Full Abstract
The Oregon Zoo has a wide variety of aquatic exhibits including harbor seals, sea otters, penguins, and elephants all of which have some form of disinfection treatment. Introduction of a chlorine/acid system in conjunction with an ozone generator disinfecting the elephant exhibit brought concerns relating to byproduct formation potential and maximum contamination levels. Haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes were the main concern as exposure levels at or above the MCL could potentially increase the risk of certain cancers. In addition, long term exposure may cause negative effects on the liver, kidney, and reproductive system. Total trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids analysis were performed by TestAmerica. Results were compared to the EPA regulations for human drinking water levels. Tests were sent out during particular events: chlorine treated, ozone treated, chlorine/ozone treated, and post dump and fill. Results indicated that when calcium hypochlorite was used to maintain a concentration of 0.10-0.20 ppm free chlorine, total trihalomethanes were reported to be 0.0020 ppm. Total Haloacetic acids were found to be 0.0052 ppm. Results relating to the use of ozone as a main form of disinfectant reported total trihalomethanes at 0.0013 ppm and haloacetic acids were not detectable. Post dump and fill using city chlorinated water data showed that total trihalomethanes were 0.0013 ppm and total haloacetic acids at a concentration of 0.025 ppm. Data suggest that the use of chlorine as a main form of disinfection elevates total haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes levels compared to the use of strictly ozone disinfection, which displayed the lowest concentrations to date. In addition, strict protocol was incorporated into exhibit care as campus pools are dumped, deep cleaned, and filled on a specific schedule to reduce increasing concentrations of byproducts. Monthly byproduct testing on the elephant exhibit is also now part of the protocol.
Water Chemistry for Live Coral Aquaria - J. Charles Delbeek M.Sc., Steinhart Aquarium
Full Abstract
In the last 20 years, live tropical coral exhibits have become increasingly common in public aquariums. It is not unusual today to find at least one live coral system, and often several exhibits housing live corals and other calcifying marine organisms. Recent trends have also included increasingly larger sized exhibits that present their own unique challenges for life support systems (LSS). Several water quality parameters are critical to monitor and maintain for live coral systems, these include temperature, pH, calcium, alkalinity, phosphate, nitrate, magnesium, and trace and minor elements such as manganese, strontium, iodide, iron and barium all thought to play roles in coral health. Paradigms for acceptable nitrate and phosphate levels for coral exhibits also could be challenged as recent studies have shown that nitrate and phosphate levels ten to twenty times that of natural seawater actually increase coral growth rates in some species.
Ecological Purification in a Coral Reef Mesocosm: Controlling Nutrient Mass Balance and Dynamics - Max Janse, Royal Burgers' Zoo
Full Abstract
When keeping aquatic animals in captivity, a method of water management is necessary to maintain water quality parameters within acceptable limits. Technical means are typically used to control different waste problems within closed systems, where for every waste type encountered another technique is applied. An alternative approach to technical purification is to apply “ecological purification”, which simulates natural systems, to an artificial surrounding like an aquarium system. This system uses an holistic approach, in which components of the food chain and food web are simultaneously managed to mitigate waste accumulation within the system. Examples of approaches applied in the field of “ecological purification” are algal scrubbers, periphyton, “live” rock, “live” sand bottom, and organic carbon dosing to maintain water quality. Or even a total system approach, which combines the different ecological purification techniques. In combination, balancing these different approaches concurrently results in “ecological purification”. Understanding and quantifying the mass balance of nutrients within a micro- or mesocosm helps to manage the natural processes within the system.
Water Quality Considerations and Life Support System Design for Cephalopods - Barrett L. Christie, Dallas Zoo
Full Abstract
The captive management of cephalopods necessitates the maintenance of water quality within precise ranges. Cephalopods have a microvillus epidermis that is one cell layer thick and contains many pores, increasing the overall surface area. The increased surface area and permeability make cephalopods highly sensitive to the chemistry and bacterial load of surrounding water. In addition to an inherent chemical sensitivity, cephalopods also possess increased metabolic rates; as much as two to three times higher than teleost fishes. As such, cephalopods produce increased amounts of nitrogenous wastes (NH3/NO2) which must be oxidized by nitrification in closed systems below 0.10 mg/L. Cephalopods are also highly sensitive to nitrate concentrations well below acceptable thresholds for fishes (50-80 mg/L). Thus, life support strategies must address these particular aspects of water quality to ensure animal welfare. Decades of laboratory culture have provided insights into the most effective filtration components to meet the unique demands of these animals. Life support systems in laboratories and public aquaria typically employ mechanical filtration followed by foam fractionation, biofiltration, activated carbon, and sterilization before returning water to the exhibit. Filtration strategies designed with the unique physiology of cephalopods in mind are best suited to meet their stringent needs for water quality and facilitate good husbandry.
Challenges of Microbial Monitoring in an Open System Aquarium - Emma Fiori. Monterey Bay Aquarium
Full Abstract
The Monterey Bay Aquarium (MBA) has a robust microbiology program that focuses not only on meeting aquarium and marine regulations but also finding better ways to maintain healthy systems inside the walls. Because of MBA’s location in a National Marine Sanctuary and the Pacific Grove Area of Special Biological Significance, it is also of critical importance that health and management considerations include the Monterey Bay, from which we draw and return approximately 1,500 gallons of seawater per minute. Multi-level treatment systems ensure that water discharged back into Monterey Bay is cleaned of any hitchhikers from the aquarium, and these systems must be monitored for compliance and equipment maintenance. Meanwhile to manage the ecosystem within our walls, we utilize such processes as fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) testing for both human and animal health in systems free from human sewage input (on which standard FIB regulations are based), FIB testing in an outdoor, semi-enclosed tide pool in which children are provided a SCUBA experience, and research processes (including genetic and molecular analyses) to deal with toxic algal blooms in the bay which can be brought into the aquarium via the seawater intake pipes. Our microbial testing also extends to air breathers like birds and sea turtles which are particularly sensitive to fungal infections. Alongside all of this, changing regulations and updated research must constantly be incorporated into protocols and data analysis to ensure that MBA maintains its reputation for cutting-edge and applicable science in the aquarium industry and beyond.
A Diverse Microbial Consortium Drives Nitrogen Loss in Large-scale Aquarium Denitrification Sulfur Reactors - Zoe Pratte, Georgia Institute of Technology
Supplemental Resources:
Supplemental Content
3. Life Support
Life Support Topics
Ozone Management for Aquatic Life Support Systems Aquality I and II - Mark Smith, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
Ozone is an effective treatment resource capable of significantly improving water quality and water clarity in aquatic systems. When applied and managed appropriately ozone can ameliorate contaminants that degrade water quality. However, poorly controlled ozone dosing may result in persistent, highly reactive and toxic byproducts that can harm aquatic life. Reactive ozone by-products are collectively called residual oxidants. By understanding and using the concept of applied ozone dose (AOD), ozone can safely be applied and controlled to achieve desired benefits, while minimizing the risk of overdosing. Monitoring and recording oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), residual oxidants, water turbidity, animal behavior, and husbandry activities are an essential part of a comprehensive ozone-management strategy.
CONVERTING OXYGEN-FED OZONE SYSTEMS TO AIR-FED OZONE SYSTEMS - Andy Aiken, National Aquarium Institute, John Gaudaur, Ozone Water Systems
Full Abstract
Oxygen-fed ozone generators, while smaller in footprint, consume more energy than to air-fed generators; and can create gas imbalance problems. The authors will present cost-versus-payback scenarios to convert an oxygen-fed system to air-fed system; and discuss gas imbalance problems that can occur. Simplified operations and upkeep are also discussed.
Disinfection Byproduct Speciation and Pathways Resulting from Ozone or Chlorine Application in Seawater Systems - Craig Adams, Utah State University
Full Abstract
Treatment of seawater (and artificial seawater formulations) in marine aquaria with ozone result in a mixture of disinfection byproducts (e.g., trichloramine and tribromamine). Due to the high concentration of chloride in seawater, ozone can degrade to free chlorine species (i.e., hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite; or HOCl/OCl-). Depending on the bromide concentration in solution, both ozone and chlorine addition can lead to the formation of free bromine species (i.e., hypobromous acid/hypobromite; or HOBr/OBr-). Free chlorine and bromine both react with other constituents in seawater (including ammonia) to form many disinfection byproducts including haloamines (e.g., trichloramine (NCl3) and tribromamine (NBr3).), trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids and other species. In this project, a suite of analytical methods were developed, validated and used to study the formation of disinfection byproducts in varied seawater treatment scenarios. Analytical methods included liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, and ion chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and other detectors (in addition to titrimetric and other methods). Analytical methods were used to examine the concentration of both inorganic and organic disinfection byproducts under a wide range of treatment conditions both in laboratory and full-scale systems. In addition, kinetic chemical models were developed to predict the formation of varied chlorinated and brominated species during ozone and chlorine treatment. Specific results of the chemical modeling were validated using chemical analyses, and more recent methods are currently being used to validate the formation of other disinfection byproduct species.
Foam Fractionation for Aquaria - Thoram Chranda PhD, Guardian Manufacturing
Foam Fractionator Level Control for Variable Supply Flow Applications - Steve Massar, Vancouver Aquarium
Full Abstract
Foam Fractionators work best when receiving consistent source water. Unfortunately many applications have variable flow rates by virtue of their operation. Many Foam Fractionators are supplied post solids filtration creating either a diminishing flow over time or pulse flow depending on the equipment. During a recent habitat renovation we were tasked with adding filtration to a raw seawater source. The filtration needed to fit inside the old sumps. In this application the water source is from a shared seawater intake. The flow rate varies based on demand of other uses and the tide. First stage filtration is through a rotating drum screen filter. The drum filter also creates a pulse flow which is inherent in normal operation. Considering these factors it was decided to control the level of the foam fractionator through modulating the discharge flow rather than the supply. To achieve this, a butterfly valve with ozone resistant components was installed low on the discharge stack. The valve was equipped with a pneumatic actuator with position control. A pipe was installed low on the fractionator body and extended above the collection cup to act as a stilling well. A sonic level sensor was used to measure water depth and provide input to the pneumatic valve. The positioner was programmed with a user defined slope to tune the flow control to the specific installation. The resulting system provides accurate level control to within 0.5” within 20 seconds of flow variation.
Use of Ultraviolet Processing in Aquatic Life Support Systems - James R. Bolton, Bolton Photosciences Inc.
Full Abstract
The use of ultraviolet (UV) light as a method of disinfection in aquatic life support systems has played a key role in protecting aquatic animals against pathogenic microorganisms, controlling algal growth, and in some cases improving water clarity. The use of UV disinfection in aquatic systems, such as in public aquariums, zoos, and in aquaculture, has increased over the past two decades and has proven to be widely accepted as an alternative to other methods of disinfection. The principles of UV disinfection will be introduced, the components and technical aspects of the equipment will be described, methods for determination of appropriate UV application will be discussed, and the impact on water quality will be evaluated. The information will enable the reader to select the appropriate equipment and determine fluence (UV dose) based on the target microorganism(s) to achieve the desired level of water disinfection and/or algal control.
Activated Carbon - Ed Latson MS, DVM, Central Park Aquatic Health
Full Abstract
Activated Carbon describes a large class of materials, mainly carbon with great porosity and large surface area to volume ratio. Carbon forms very stable structures of repeating hexagonal rings called graphene. Addition of pentagons and heptagons produces curved sheets called fullerenes. Jumbled assemblages of graphenes and fullerenes probably produce the porous structure. These sheets can be one atom thick, resulting in a large surface area. Activated carbon is mostly produced from bulk natural carbon sources so it may contain other naturally occurring compounds. Adsorption on this large surface area makes it useful for removing undesired compounds from water. This wide variety of carbon sources and means of activation result in variation of adsorptive properties, thus the selection of activated carbon should be compared to target contaminant characteristics. The specific goal for use of activated carbon should be determined, leading to the selection of a suitable commercial product to achieve the best results. Catalytic dechlorination of source water is a common use.
Dechlorination of chloramine is much slower so larger vessels and longer contact time is needed. Treatment to increase catalysis produce active groups to enhance the reaction. Possible adsorption of trace minerals, ability to catalyze some reactions, and production of very fine particles influence use of activated carbon.
Dechlorination of chloramine is much slower so larger vessels and longer contact time is needed. Treatment to increase catalysis produce active groups to enhance the reaction. Possible adsorption of trace minerals, ability to catalyze some reactions, and production of very fine particles influence use of activated carbon.
Emerging Techniques for Quantifying Environmental Quality - Mark Smith, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
As an industry we are accustomed to measuring ‘standard’ environmental parameters for the animals in our care, such as nutrients, temperature, pH, etc. However, there are a number of other more esoteric, yet cheap and easy to measure, parameters that can give great insight into the quality of the environment. Examples include: atmospheric CO2, pH differential, and sand grain angularity. In addition, the development of mechanisms to quantify otherwise descriptive data can provide a valuable means to reveal trends and target trouble-shooting activities within living systems. Two examples include the development of a disease condition scale and the examination of relative biological loads within a dynamic system. Critical to the successful implementation of these techniques is a robust mechanism to feed collected information back into the operation of the living systems.
Mechanical Filtration Systems - Howard Dryden, Dryden Aqua
Full Abstract
Sand filters provide the primary mechanism for the mechanical filtration of recycled water. Sand is a good filtration media but suffers from biofouling and biocoagulation of the filter bed, leading to compaction and wormhole channelling of un-treated water through the filter. Activated filter media (AFM) is manufactured from glass as a raw material. The product has been engineered to prevent biofouling, compaction and channelling. The leading accredited filter media laboratory in Europe has tested the mechanical filtration performance and back-wash efficiency of both AFM and high quality silica sand. The results are discussed and optimised filter bed operational criteria are established.
Microbes, Biofilms, Fish and The Environment … It’s not Just About the Biofilter! - M. Andrew Stamper, The Seas with Nemo and Friends, Walt Disney World Resort
Full Abstract
In every milliliter of surface seawater, there are 0.5 to 1 million bacteria and 10 million viruses. They are also found on every surface and comprise very complex ecosystems called biofilms. For those who think in terms of bacteria associated with biofiltration as “good” and pathogens as “bad,” the relationships are much more complex. Unfortunately, culturing bacteria which only identifies < 1% of the bacteria in water has greatly limited our understanding of microbes in the environment. Current technologies such as qPCR are quickly developing and are demonstrating a vastly diverse microbial ecosystem. A managed system tested by the author demonstrated over 890 genera and over 2,500 species of bacteria which only accounted for 69% of the bacterial DNA; the rest unidentified. Microbes occur in two realms: planktonic and sessile. The planktonic state is fairly straightforward, whereas the sessile biofilm ecology is extremely complex. Biofilms include organisms beyond bacteria and comprise fungi, algae, protozoans, and metazoans. An intricate ecologic process occurs as various environmental parameters change. These organisms secrete an assortment of chemicals known as extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs), which add to the total organic carbon (TOC) within the water column and are critical to the health of the organisms and water environment. Many factors influence the number and types of microbes in the environment. There have been several papers published on the effects of chemicals on the biofilter and this is the most important consideration when adding therapeutic agents to water. It is important to know that most, if not all, of these drug interactions are dose dependent and affect the biofilter’s efficiency to varying degrees; they should not be considered as having an all-or-nothing relationship. On the flipside, drugs can also be digested/converted by microbes as a food source. When controlling an environment like the aquarium industry’s current standards, millions of bacterial species are starved into inactivity. These bacteria, although they may not be obvious, could still exploit any limiting nutrient sources, whether it is ammonia, nitrite, phosphorus or carbon. This also applies to other nutrients that might enter the water. Nutrients can be any molecule which includes the needed elements, including complex molecules such as therapeutics. When ingested internally, therapeutic agents are absorbed into the body which is, for the most part, a sterile environment. This is not the case when the same chemical is placed into a body of water. It is important to recognize the impact of microbes on chemicals, especially those with carbon chains and associated elements that may be nutrient sources. With the diversity of microbes in a water column, it is possible that one species will have an enzyme to break the chemical chains of the therapeutic and use it as a food resource. Therefore, it is important to invest in procedures for monitoring chemical concentration when treating animals. It is also important to recognize that there are different microbial communities in various institutions and even between tanks which will result in a variety of experiences by husbandry/water quality staff and clinicians.
AC/DC – The Advantages of Converting to Direct Current Pumps - Jordan Depenbrock; Barbara Bailey, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
Traditional alternating current (AC) pool pumps have been used in the aquarium industry for decades. Although AC pumps can accomplish desired flow rates in most small-scale aquarium systems and do so at a reasonable cost, they can also have significant drawbacks, including: the need for regular maintenance (e.g. replacement of seals); generation of excessive ambient noise, vibrations, and heat (both into the atmosphere and the water stream); and elevated rates of energy consumption. In late 2016, the New England Aquarium received funding from a trustee to replace 17 traditional AC pumps in our Animal Care Center Quarantine Room with direct current (DC) pumps. These pumps (200 and 400 W) were installed over a one-year period. The intention of this exercise was to analyze the feasibility of replacing AC pumps (approx. 150) on smaller aquatic systems (exhibits, quarantine, and holding) throughout the aquarium. The following data sets were collected and compared for both AC and DC pumps: energy consumption, cost to operate, noise, vibration, and system temperature changes.
Sketch It Up: An In-house Approach to Life Support System Design and Development - Micah Buster, Meghan Atkinson, Clare Hansen, Ryan Hannum, Oregon Coast Community College Aquarium Science Program
Full Abstract
As part of the Life Support Operation and Design course in the Aquarium Science Program at Oregon Coast Community College, students were teamed up to deliver a term project with the instructions to design a hypothetical life support system for a provided scenario. The project included design criteria and calculations, specifications on equipment, drawings, a budget, operational SOPs and schedule through installation and start-up. This presentation will be delivered by one of these student teams with a primary focus on how the utilization of online available 3D modeling tools such as Google SketchUp can aid husbandry and exhibits personnel in the design and development of in-house projects for life support systems and exhibits. The use of such tools can help facilities reduce design costs, communicate to stakeholders, ease installations, improve operational efficiencies and benefit staff development. The students will also share their experience in developing their term project in relation to applications and lessons learned on how to possibly approach life support project design for the benefit of in-house projects at aquarium facilities.
Denitrification in Aquatic Life Support Systems: Options and Overview - Hunter Ryan, California Science Center
Full Abstract
In recirculating aquatic systems, nitrate accumulates as a byproduct of the mineralization and oxidation of nitrogenous compounds produced by the metabolic processes of fishes and other system inhabitants. Nitrate is less toxic than ammonia or nitrite but, in high concentrations, nitrate can pose a health threat to numerous aquatic organisms. In the past, aquarium and aquaculture facilities have relied on partial water changes to control nitrate levels; however, the cost incurred by replacing significant volumes of water in large-scale aquariums can be problematic. In recent years, many facilities have employed methods of biological denitrification to reduce and manage nitrate levels in aquaria. Biological denitrification can be accomplished through autotrophic or heterotrophic processes. Heterotrophic methods contribute to alkalinity and have higher nitrate removal rates than autotrophic methods. Autotrophic denitrification has lower energy yields, but does not require the addition of an external carbon source, produces less sludge and sulfide, and has a higher tolerance for oxygen. There are several common denitrification reactor designs including batch reactors, continuous flow reactors, and mixed design reactors. Additionally, packed bed/column and moving bed reactor configurations are frequently utilized as microbial growth/electron donor substrates. Critical design factors include hydraulic loading rate, nitrogen production rate, hydraulic residence time, and nitrate removal rate. In recirculating aquatic systems, nitrate accumulates as a byproduct of the mineralization and oxidation of nitrogenous compounds produced by the metabolic processes of fishes and other system inhabitants. Nitrate is less toxic than ammonia or nitrite but, in high concentrations, nitrate can pose a health threat to numerous aquatic organisms. In the past, aquarium and aquaculture facilities have relied on partial water changes to control nitrate levels; however, the cost incurred by replacing significant volumes of water in large-scale aquariums can be problematic. In recent years, many facilities have employed methods of biological denitrification to reduce and manage nitrate levels in aquaria. Biological denitrification can be accomplished through autotrophic or heterotrophic processes. Heterotrophic methods contribute to alkalinity and have higher nitrate removal rates than autotrophic methods. Autotrophic denitrification has lower energy yields, but does not require the addition of an external carbon source, produces less sludge and sulfide, and has a higher tolerance for oxygen. There are several common denitrification reactor designs including batch reactors, continuous flow reactors, and mixed design reactors. Additionally, packed bed/column and moving bed reactor configurations are frequently utilized as microbial growth/electron donor substrates. Critical design factors include hydraulic loading rate, nitrogen production rate, hydraulic residence time, and nitrate removal rate.
Recirculating Autotrophic Denitrification for High Removal Rates and User-Friendly Operation -
Andrew Aiken, National Aquarium
Full Abstract
Advances in denitrification systems continue to be made, however risks associated with systems that must work within narrow tolerances, and which are susceptible to mismanagement of operational complexity, have prevented their widespread use. Heterotrophic, e.g. methanol-based, systems can be problematic due to high levels of bio-growth and biofouling, as well as erratic nitrate removal rates resulting in production of hydrogen sulfide. Autotrophic, e.g. sulfur-based systems for large aquaria can be too large to suitably fit in mechanical rooms due to inefficient removal rates. The National Aquarium in Baltimore employs an efficient sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification system that attains a peak removal rate of 7 kg NO3-/m3 S-day, which is more than three times greater than the removal rate of common autotrophic sulfur denitrification systems. The total footprint of the system is <8 m2. Nitrate removal rates are high while bio-growth and bio-fouling remain low. Annual seawater savings is 855 m3 for each system. Operation of the system does not require elaborate control equipment such as ORP sensors or modulating valves. Operation is user-friendly, and consists of only three operator functions: manual adjustment of system flow rates, filter backwashing and purging of nitrogen gas.
Six Years in the Making: The Path to an Effective Autotrophic Denitrification System - Kyle McPheeters, Tennessee Aquarium
Full Abstract
Autotrophic denitrification is a means of filtration that reduces nitrate without water changes, giving an inland aquarium the ability to improve the health of marine exhibits without the environmental and fiscal costs of changing synthetic seawater. Over six years four unique denitrification systems were constructed. The merits of each type of system include ease of media management through backwashing, consistent flow rates/performance with predictable results, and lower nitrates in the exhibit; shortfalls include inconsistent results, unpredictable performance, difficulty managing media and difficulty cleaning media. Trials with these systems show that to be effective two separate media vessels (sulfur and carbonate) should be used, and systems should be recirculating. Our systems and the real-world data produced from them addresses current misinformation.
Successful Denitrification at the National Aquarium - Six Years and Counting - Andrew Aiken, National Aquarium
Full Abstract
Long-term exposure to nitrate in excess of 200 mg/L as NO3- is linked to various health problems including goiter in elasmobranchs and depressed antibody response in teleosts. Nitrate management via water changes on large, closed exhibits is often cost-prohibitive and inadequate. Since 2011, autotrophic denitrification has been used successfully at the National Aquarium. Concentrations below 10 mg/L as NO3- have been achieved in multi-taxa exhibits as large as 1,230,000 liters. No custom-built components are used. Process management is user-friendly and consists of daily olfactory inspection, 3×/week nitrite (NO2-) testing of denitrification system effluent; and weekly or monthly nitrate testing of exhibit water via ion chromatography. Automated control and monitoring (e.g. pH, ORP) is not required. Systems are backwashed weekly. Multiple improvements have advanced system reliability and ease of use. Recirculating reverse flow regime through sulfur and calcium carbonate allows daily removal rates greater than 7 kg NO3- /m3 sulfur.
Supplemental Resources
Supplemental Content
Types of Biofilters: Advantages & Disadvantages
Chlorination in Aquaria
Use of Foam Fractionation for Improving Water Quality in Marine Aquaria
Live Corals: Natural Water Live Corals: Natural Water Quality Parameters and LSS Quality Parameters and LSS Design considerations
Aquatic Animal Life Support Operators Website
Aquality Website
Chlorination in Aquaria
Use of Foam Fractionation for Improving Water Quality in Marine Aquaria
Live Corals: Natural Water Live Corals: Natural Water Quality Parameters and LSS Quality Parameters and LSS Design considerations
Aquatic Animal Life Support Operators Website
Aquality Website
4. Medical Observations & Techniques
4.1 Foundations
Foundations Topics
Emerging Zoonotic Issues within Public Aquariums and their Health and Safety Implications -
Dr. Rob Jones, The Aquarium Vet
Full Abstract
A good necropsy technique is an essential tool in any successful aquarist’s toolkit. A well- developed and consistent necropsy technique will assist in making many diagnoses (it is one of the six steps in making a diagnosis). We will go through an entire necropsy procedure and also look at the value of wet preparations (both external and internal).
Wet Preps 101 – an essential part of diagnosis making - Dr. Rob Jones, The Aquarium Vet
Full Abstract
Wet Preps 101 – Good wet preparations from either live or dead fish form the basis of making many diagnoses that involve external and internal parasites, bacterial infections and in some cases even viral infections. What is a wet preparation and how to make them. We will look at gill preps, skin preps and fin clips, as well as the internal wet preparations (liver, spleen, kidney and gut) that should be conducted at every post-mortem. I will show a variety of examples of how useful they are as well as demonstrating what is normal and what is abnormal.
Necropsy Techniques - Dr. Rob Jones, The Aquarium Vet
Full Abstract
A good necropsy technique is an essential tool in any successful aquarist’s toolkit. A well- developed and consistent necropsy technique will assist in making many diagnoses (it is one of the six steps in making a diagnosis). We will go through an entire necropsy procedure and also look at the value of wet preparations (both external and internal).
4.2 Medications and Techniques
Medications & Techniques Topics
Praziquantel Dosing and Breakdown in Quarantine - Karen Tuttle Stearns, Aquarium of the Pacific
Full Abstract
Praziquantel is an important medication used in Aquaria to treat monogenean flatworm parasite outbreaks. Due to the expense and difficulty of measuring Praziquantel in aquarium waters there is much that is not known about its persistence and breakdown when administered directly into aquarium systems. A quarantine system at the Aquarium of the Pacific was monitored under different circumstances to determine the most efficient dosing method and a way to delay the breakdown of Praziquantel. The breakdown products are evaluated using spectroscopy. Quarantine treatment options are reviewed and discussed.
Kicking It "Old School": The Use Of Honey In Abscess Treatment For Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle, Lepidochelys Kempii - Carly Byrns, SeaLife Minnesota Aquarium
Full Abstract
Common, everyday, store bought honey, was used for post-surgical treatment of an abscess located at the base of the tail on the ventral side of the carapace on a 17 year old, Kemp's Ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempii. Honey has been said to have been used by the Egyptians for wound and burn treatments over 4000 years ago. Most of these “old-school” remedies have been forgotten or substituted with modern medicine replacements. These natural remedies have proven to be beneficial to wound treatment to kill bacteria and enhance granulation using acidic pH and osmolarity. There is limited knowledge and documentation of the use of honey to treat wounds and burns in reptiles. Previous documentation has been limited to small animal veterinarians in the treatment of dogs, cats and other mammals. We first discovered honey being used to treat wounds by the Sea Turtle Hospital on Marathon Key. With the location of the abscess in the upper layers of the epithelium we felt that treating the wound with honey would be the most successful course of treatment. A marsupialization technique was performed to keep the abscess open to allow for daily flushing with dilute Betadine and honey administration. After treatment the sea turtle was “dry docked” for 20 minutes then replaced back in her holding pool. The healing process took approximately 11 weeks with no complications. The abscess completely healed and the sea turtle made a full recovery. Due to our success with the honey treatment we have continued to use it as a standard treatment for other wounds and lacerations on our other sea turtles and terrapins.
Microbes, Biofilms, Fish and The Environment … It’s not Just About the Biofilter! - M. Andrew Stamper, The Seas with Nemo and Friends, Walt Disney World Resort
Full Abstract
In every milliliter of surface seawater, there are 0.5 to 1 million bacteria and 10 million viruses. They are also found on every surface and comprise very complex ecosystems called biofilms. For those who think in terms of bacteria associated with biofiltration as “good” and pathogens as “bad,” the relationships are much more complex. Unfortunately, culturing bacteria which only identifies < 1% of the bacteria in water has greatly limited our understanding of microbes in the environment. Current technologies such as qPCR are quickly developing and are demonstrating a vastly diverse microbial ecosystem. A managed system tested by the author demonstrated over 890 genera and over 2,500 species of bacteria which only accounted for 69% of the bacterial DNA; the rest unidentified. Microbes occur in two realms: planktonic and sessile. The planktonic state is fairly straightforward, whereas the sessile biofilm ecology is extremely complex. Biofilms include organisms beyond bacteria and comprise fungi, algae, protozoans, and metazoans. An intricate ecologic process occurs as various environmental parameters change. These organisms secrete an assortment of chemicals known as extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs), which add to the total organic carbon (TOC) within the water column and are critical to the health of the organisms and water environment. Many factors influence the number and types of microbes in the environment. There have been several papers published on the effects of chemicals on the biofilter and this is the most important consideration when adding therapeutic agents to water. It is important to know that most, if not all, of these drug interactions are dose dependent and affect the biofilter’s efficiency to varying degrees; they should not be considered as having an all-or-nothing relationship. On the flipside, drugs can also be digested/converted by microbes as a food source. When controlling an environment like the aquarium industry’s current standards, millions of bacterial species are starved into inactivity. These bacteria, although they may not be obvious, could still exploit any limiting nutrient sources, whether it is ammonia, nitrite, phosphorus or carbon. This also applies to other nutrients that might enter the water. Nutrients can be any molecule which includes the needed elements, including complex molecules such as therapeutics. When ingested internally, therapeutic agents are absorbed into the body which is, for the most part, a sterile environment. This is not the case when the same chemical is placed into a body of water. It is important to recognize the impact of microbes on chemicals, especially those with carbon chains and associated elements that may be nutrient sources. With the diversity of microbes in a water column, it is possible that one species will have an enzyme to break the chemical chains of the therapeutic and use it as a food resource. Therefore, it is important to invest in procedures for monitoring chemical concentration when treating animals. It is also important to recognize that there are different microbial communities in various institutions and even between tanks which will result in a variety of experiences by husbandry/water quality staff and clinicians.
Microbes and the Aquarium: Who is eating the Prazi? - Larry C. Boles, Disney’s Animals, Science, and Environment
Full Abstract
The effect of added chemicals on biological filters has been studied for many years and is the most important consideration when using therapeutic agents in recirculating aquarium systems. Drugs can also be utilized by microbes as a food source and may impact treatment procedures. Praziquantel (PZQ) is a drug commonly utilized to treat parasitic infections in humans and other animals. In the aquariums, PZQ is administered in a variety of ways ranging from short-term baths to long-term immersions for the treatment of ectoparasites on fish and elasmobranchs. In order to fully treat an infection, the aquarist may have to maintain therapeutic levels of PZQ over a period of many days. It has long been assumed that once administered, PZQ is stable in a marine environment and must be removed by filtration. However, no controlled experiments have been published to validate that claim.
In this study, recirculating marine aquariums (three containing 12 French grunts, Haemulon flavolineatum, and three with no fish) were treated with PZQ at 2 ppm. After one round of treatment, the PZQ was no longer detectable in any system after 8 days. There were no significant differences in concentration over time between systems with or without fish, suggesting that the removal of PZQ from the environment was not due to the presence of fish. The subsequent two PZQ treatments yielded even faster breakdown (non-detectable after 2 days) with slight variations between systems. The variability in breakdown rate suggests that mechanical filtration is likely not causing the breakdown. In sterilized system water, PZQ concentration remained unchanged over 15 days, suggesting that breakdown is not naturally-occurring in salt water, but rather may be the result of bacterial degradation. These results should be taken into consideration when providing PZQ treatments to marine animals to ensure maximum drug administration.
In this study, recirculating marine aquariums (three containing 12 French grunts, Haemulon flavolineatum, and three with no fish) were treated with PZQ at 2 ppm. After one round of treatment, the PZQ was no longer detectable in any system after 8 days. There were no significant differences in concentration over time between systems with or without fish, suggesting that the removal of PZQ from the environment was not due to the presence of fish. The subsequent two PZQ treatments yielded even faster breakdown (non-detectable after 2 days) with slight variations between systems. The variability in breakdown rate suggests that mechanical filtration is likely not causing the breakdown. In sterilized system water, PZQ concentration remained unchanged over 15 days, suggesting that breakdown is not naturally-occurring in salt water, but rather may be the result of bacterial degradation. These results should be taken into consideration when providing PZQ treatments to marine animals to ensure maximum drug administration.
Kicking It "Old School": The Use Of Honey In Abscess Treatment For Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle, Lepidochelys Kempii - Carly Byrns, SeaLife Minnesota Aquarium
Full Abstract
Common, everyday, store bought honey, was used for post-surgical treatment of an abscess located at the base of the tail on the ventral side of the carapace on a 17 year old, Kemp's Ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempii. Honey has been said to have been used by the Egyptians for wound and burn treatments over 4000 years ago. Most of these “old-school” remedies have been forgotten or substituted with modern medicine replacements. These natural remedies have proven to be beneficial to wound treatment to kill bacteria and enhance granulation using acidic pH and osmolarity. There is limited knowledge and documentation of the use of honey to treat wounds and burns in reptiles. Previous documentation has been limited to small animal veterinarians in the treatment of dogs, cats and other mammals. We first discovered honey being used to treat wounds by the Sea Turtle Hospital on Marathon Key. With the location of the abscess in the upper layers of the epithelium we felt that treating the wound with honey would be the most successful course of treatment. A marsupialization technique was performed to keep the abscess open to allow for daily flushing with dilute Betadine and honey administration. After treatment the sea turtle was “dry docked” for 20 minutes then replaced back in her holding pool. The healing process took approximately 11 weeks with no complications. The abscess completely healed and the sea turtle made a full recovery. Due to our success with the honey treatment we have continued to use it as a standard treatment for other wounds and lacerations on our other sea turtles and terrapins.
Alternatives to MS-222 - Dr. Kate Bailey, N.C. State University, College of Veterinary Medicine
Full Abstract
The necessity for fish anesthesia on a daily basis is a reality for many of those working in the aquarium setting. This necessity should produce a driving force for the exploration of more predictable ways to produce anesthesia, both for animal welfare, and the peace of mind of people providing care. There is a paucity of literature investigating reliable and predictable anesthetic agents in fish. Currently, the only FDA-approved fish anesthetic agent is MS-222 (tricaine methanesulfonate), a sodium channel blocker in peripheral neural tissue, but has no known mechanism of action for production of general anesthesia. Due to our lack of knowledge surrounding MS-222, it is logical to investigate alternative anesthetic agents with known mechanisms of action. Potential alternative anesthetics include alfaxalone and propofol, both of which are GABA agonists that are used routinely as injectables for general anesthesia in companion animals. Fish have GABA receptors in their brain, and the findings from initial investigations using koi carp are promising. Alfaxalone has been investigated for both immersion anesthesia and intramuscular injectable anesthesia. While immersion provided rapid and reliable anesthesia, intramuscular injection produced variable results, and resulted in an unacceptable incidence of morbidity and mortality. Propofol was investigated as an immersion agent, and also provided rapid and reliable anesthesia. While this is useful information for small and easily confined fish species, it is much less useful for large and hard to confine species. Other drugs such as ketamine and dexmedetomine are used for injectable anesthesia with varying success. Further studies are needed to investigate alternative options for injectable anesthesia, especially in larger fish, as the options currently available are frequently unreliable and variable in efficacy and utility.
Topical Applications of Misoprostol and Phenyton Gel for Treatment of Dermal Ulcerations in Teleosts - Dr. Elsburgh O. Clarke III, Audubon Aquarium of the Americas
Full Abstract
Misoprostol, a synthetic prostaglandin E1 analog, is used to decrease gastric secretion and increase uterine contraction frequency in both veterinary and human medicine. Phenytoin is used as an anticonvulsant and antidysrhythmic, and is commonly incorporated into euthanasia solutions in veterinary medicine. These drugs have been compounded together and used topically to treat ulcers in human medicine. Mechanisms of action include stimulation of fibroblasts, increased collagen deposition, glucorticoid antagonism and antimicrobial activity. Misoprostol/Phenytoin gel (MP) was used for treatment of dermal ulcerations due to conspecific aggression and/or environmental trauma in multiple teleost cases at the Audubon Aquarium of the Americas and its effectiveness was evaluated.
A community compounding pharmacist prepared the two drugs into a fine powder, consisting of 0.0024% Misoprostol and 2% Phenytoin. During treatment, the affected teleost was manually restrained or sedated with tricaine methanesulfonate, and temporarily removed from the water. Lesion sites were cleaned with dilute chlorohexidine and rinsed with saline. A thin layer of MP was applied to the ulcerated area. Once in contact with moist surfaces, the powder quickly transformed into an opaque, sticky gel-like substance. Additional saline or enclosure water was applied to further transform the powder to gel if needed. Once a thin layer was established, the patient was returned to the normal enclosure. Depending on the lesion site and application thickness, the compounded gel typically remained in place for 3-5 days, and re-application was performed as needed. The gel acts as a protective layer, potentially decreasing osmotic stressors to the patient while promoting granulation tissue and healing. This compound has been used in multiple marine and freshwater species. No adverse reactions have been noted due to application of the drugs in any patient. Misoprostol/Phenytoin gel is easily applied, durable in the aquatic environment, and subjectively decreases healing time in ulcerated tissue of teleosts.
A community compounding pharmacist prepared the two drugs into a fine powder, consisting of 0.0024% Misoprostol and 2% Phenytoin. During treatment, the affected teleost was manually restrained or sedated with tricaine methanesulfonate, and temporarily removed from the water. Lesion sites were cleaned with dilute chlorohexidine and rinsed with saline. A thin layer of MP was applied to the ulcerated area. Once in contact with moist surfaces, the powder quickly transformed into an opaque, sticky gel-like substance. Additional saline or enclosure water was applied to further transform the powder to gel if needed. Once a thin layer was established, the patient was returned to the normal enclosure. Depending on the lesion site and application thickness, the compounded gel typically remained in place for 3-5 days, and re-application was performed as needed. The gel acts as a protective layer, potentially decreasing osmotic stressors to the patient while promoting granulation tissue and healing. This compound has been used in multiple marine and freshwater species. No adverse reactions have been noted due to application of the drugs in any patient. Misoprostol/Phenytoin gel is easily applied, durable in the aquatic environment, and subjectively decreases healing time in ulcerated tissue of teleosts.
4.3 Chelonians
Chelonians Topics
Rehabilitation of a Sea Turtle with a Serious Skull Fracture - Christian Legner, NC Aquarium on Roanoke Island
Full Abstract
The sea turtle rehabilitation facility located at the North Carolina Aquarium on Roanoke Island is a small center managed in cooperation with a local non-profit organization, the Network for Endangered Sea Turtles. For many years, the facility primarily has been a receiving location for cold-stun events occurring along the northeastern North Carolina coast. In 2013, the center accepted a boat-strike turtle with deep wounds to the carapace, as well as a head wound that exposed the brain case. In conjunction with the NC State University College of Veterinary Medicine, it was decided that this turtle was a viable candidate for rehabilitation. Although there is little literature available concerning the survivability of these types of cases, anecdotal evidence from past cases demonstrated a proclivity to euthanize such patients. Working with the knowledge that few such injured turtles have survived non-surgical rehabilitations, we chose to proceed. Nearly one year after admission, results have been excellent, adding to the list of successfully treated sea turtles with skull fractures penetrating the brain case.
A Customized 3D-Printed Splint for Stabilization of an Open Front Flipper Fracture in a Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas) - Dr. Emily F. Christiansen, NC State University,
College of Veterinary Medicine
Full Abstract
Sea turtles frequently present to veterinarians and rehabilitation centers with traumatic injuries caused by boat strikes or similar impacts. These injuries commonly include fractures of the extremities, with or without open wounds. While sea turtles have an impressive capacity to heal without significant intervention, the preservation of maximal function in these flippers is a priority for successful return to the wild. Various forms of surgical and external coaptation have been attempted in sea turtles, with limited success. Their natural saltwater environment is not conducive to typical bandaging and splinting materials, and the forces applied against a flipper in the aquatic medium are substantial enough to cause most types of surgical fixators to fail, even in smaller individuals. In July 2013, a juvenile green sea turtle was found floating at the surface in near-shore waters of central North Carolina. The turtle had sustained an open fracture of the right radius and ulna with ventral exposure of bone fragments, along with other injuries. The flipper exhibited severe dorsoflexion at the fracture site, but the tissue distal to the injury retained adequate circulation and nervous function. A 3-D printer was used to create a customized form-fitting plastic polymer splint designed using modeling software around CT-derived tridimensional renderings of the fractured and intact flippers. The splint was generated in a two-piece clamshell design with multiple perforations, with a hinge along the cranial edge, and included a large window over the open wound to allow for cleaning and monitoring. The splint was initially applied under sedation, and secured onto the flipper with synthetic suture material. The turtle tolerated the splint very well, and showed increased swimming confidence within minutes of being placed in the water. The splint remained in place for 40 days, providing considerable external stabilization with no obvious side effects.
4.4 Teleosts
Teleosts Topics
Rockfish Eye Surgery and New Techniques in Prosthetics - Tim Carpenter, Seattle Aquarium
Full Abstract
Fish in captive settings are prone to eye disease, and rockfish in particular are commonly afflicted with a disease known as exopthalmia. Eye disease in fish is known to cause decreased feeding activity, poor growth, development of secondary illness and increased mortality (Nadelstein and Lewbart, 1997; Hargis 1991). In some cases, removal of the diseased eye in combination with medical treatment may resolve the issue and allow the fish to return to normal health. Over the past decade, Seattle Aquarium veterinarians and aquarists have performed multiple surgeries to remove eyes from rockfish, using various techniques. Additionally, value has been shown in researching techniques to install artificial eyes in these fish. The placement of a prosthetic eye in a one-eyed rockfish allows aquariums to accomplish three goals: 1) continue to display a fish that may otherwise be euthanized or taken off display due to aesthetic concerns; 2) provide the fish with a convincing replacement to potentially reduce fish aggression, and; 3) refine a technique that has yet to be implemented as commonly in fish as it has in mammals and birds. In addition, removal of the eyes allows vets to establish diagnostic tools to assess the cause of the eye issues. This presentation summarizes the work performed at the Seattle Aquarium with respect to rockfish eye removal and prosthetic installation.
Managing Mycobacteria in Syngnathid Systems - Steven Yong, Seattle Aquarium
Full Abstract
The fact that non-tuberculosis mycobacteria (NTM) is a group of one of the most troublesome pathogens in the aquatic industry is well known. Those of us with syngnathids in our collections also know that, for some reason, this family of fish is particularly susceptible to these infections. This presentation will briefly revisit what we know, or think we know, about Mycobacterium spp.; as well as review some of the changes in basic husbandry that the Seattle Aquarium has used to significantly reduce the number of NTM breakouts and mortalities in our syngnathid populations.
Stress and its Effects on Fish (including Mycobacteria) - Dr. Rob Jones, The Aquarium Vet
Full Abstract
Fish welfare is an increasingly important subject. We need to understand what it is and why it is so important to be concerned about the welfare of the fish under our care. Fish experience stress for a variety of reasons. What is stress? What are the factors that cause stress? We will examine the physiologic basis of the stress response in fish. Fish that are under stress become immunocompromised (via the HPI axis) which is then a major contributor to disease and death in aquatic animals. Stress leads to an increased incidence in Mycobacteria.
Hyperbaric Chambers For Rockfish At The Monterey Bay Aquarium - Joe Welsh, Monterey Bay Aquarium
Full Abstract
The diverse and numerous rockfish (Sebastes spp.) living between 30 and 200M deep in Monterey Bay have been under-represented in the Monterey Bay Aquarium's exhibits because of the difficulty in collecting and holding healthy animals from these depths. In the past, aquarium collectors have positioned themselves using SCUBA gear at 20 meters under a fishing boat to receive rockfishes being reeled up. Here the fishes' airbladders were relieved with hypodermic needles before passing the fish up to the surface. This was a successful collecting method though it was logistically challenging. More recently, Jeff Smiley (Hubbs-Sea World) brought large rockfish straight to the surface from over 100 meters. These fish were quickly moved into pressure vessels and successfully recompressed and decompressed for eventual acclimatization to surface pressure. Inspired by Smiley's efforts, and also by some smaller chambers developed by Jeff Landesman (Cabrillo Marine Museum), we have developed and employed two types of pressure vessels: One is stainless steel and is pressurized with oxygen gas; the other is built of PVC pipe components, has a “two stage” function, and is pressurized with a water pump. These vessels work well for small to medium-sized rockfish, are transportable, easy to build and operate, and inexpensive. We have collected rockfish with hook and line, trawls, or traps from up to 150 meters depth. Rockfish that have been successfully acclimated to the surface in these vessels include bocaccio, canary, chillipepper, cow cod, greenstriped, greenspotted, halfbanded, rosy, squarespot, starry, and widow. We are helping supply live fish for research, including post-barotrauma rockfish vision investigations done by Bonnie Rogers (CSU Long Beach). We are also using recompression for routine hook and line or scuba collection of nearshore species.
4.5 Elasmobranchs
Elasmobranchs Topics
Common Causes for Mortality Events in Captive Sand Tiger Sharks (Carcharias taurus) - Dr. Robert George, Ripley's Aquarium
Full Abstract
Sand tiger sharks, Carcharias taurus, are the most common large sharks displayed in public aquariums. In the wild, female sand tigers mature at 9-10 years of age, while males reach maturity in only 6-7 years. Exhibited sand tigers often live in captivity for 10-15 years, and in some cases survival times extend well over 20 years after capture have been reported. With exhibit sand tigers routinely reaching geriatric ages, it would be expected for such animals to eventually show systemic problems associated with age-related organ failure. In addition to organ failure as a cause of death, a variety of physical issues such as prolapse of the spiral valve, gastric prolapse, gastro-intestinal foreign bodies, and reproductive disorders can occur. This presentation will review some of the most common causes of mortality for these sharks.
Attempted Treatments for Eimeria southwelli in Cownose Rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) -
Heather Broadhurst, NC State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, CMAST
Full Abstract
Cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) are one of the most commonly exhibited elasmobranch species in public aquaria. This species is commonly afflicted with the coccidian parasite Eimeria southwelli that is associated with (though not definitively the cause of) chronic fatal disease in an aquarium setting. The three North Carolina Aquariums at Fort Fisher, Pine Knoll Shores and Roanoke Island maintain cownose rays in their aquarium collections; veterinary care is provided by the North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Marine Sciences and Technology. From 2008 to 2012, several medical treatments were attempted to reduce or eliminate the parasitic loads in cownose rays that were confirmed positive with moderate to heavy infestations of Eimeria southwelli. Four separate trials were performed, including ponazuril paste (administered orally), and clindamycin, sulfamethoxine and enrofloxacin - all injected intracoelomically. None of these attempts was successful in reducing or eliminating the coccidian, and the sulfamethoxine treatment regimen appeared to contribute to the fatality of a few animals. Throughout all of the treatments, optimal routine husbandry, especially nutritional support, was paramount in delaying the onset of clinical symptoms and maintaining clinically healthy rays.
Successful Treatment of Eimeria southwelli in a Cownose Ray (Rhinoptera bonasus) Using Oral Copper Wire Particles - Dr. Elsburgh O. Clarke III, Audubon Aquarium of the Americas
Full Abstract
Cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) are medium sized elasmobranchs commonly kept in aquaria throughout North America. Eimeria southwelli, an apicomplexan parasite, is a known organism associated with mortality in cownose rays.1 Clinical signs of eimeria infection include discoloration, emaciation and death.1 An adult female cownose ray housed in captivity long term, but initially wild caught was maintained in a large approximately 510,300 L multi-species exhibit. At initial clinical presentation, this ray was observed to be severely emaciated (weight 1.36 kg) and discolored. The animal was manually captured and medically evaluated. A coelomic cavity saline flush and sampling with cytological concentration was performed and E. southwelli oocysts were observed on microscopic evaluation of the fluid. The animal was treated with a one-time dose of copper wire particles (50 mg, Copasure®, Animax Ltd, Shepards Grove West Stanton, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, IP31 2AR, England) at a dosage of 36.7 mg/kg. The copper wire particles were placed in an empty dosing gel capsule and fed orally with frozen-thawed diet items. Weights were obtained weekly, and coelomic cavity saline flush and sampling were performed at 6 and 10 weeks post copper wire treatment to observe for E. southwelli oocysts, both were negative for visible oocysts. At week 10 the animal had returned to a normal body condition, normal activity level, and was over 2 kg and determined to be clinically normal and returned to the main exhibit, where it remains. Coelomic saline sampling is one of the most common ways to diagnose E. southwelli in cownose rays.1 In the case of this particular cownose ray, copper wire particles given orally appeared to be a safe and effective treatment option for an E. southwelli infection. Future studies evaluating the pharmacokinetic and dynamic effects and safety of this treatment in cownose rays is indicated.
Whole Blood Transfusion in a Cownose Ray (Rhinoptera bonasus) - Dr. Alexa McDermott, Dr. Cara Field, Dr. Tonya Clauss, Lynda Leppert, Nicole Hatcher, Jeffery Ingle, and Mayela Alsina
Georgia Aquarium
Full Abstract
A female cownose ray (Rhinoptera bonasus) presented for extreme lethargy and pale coloration. Examination revealed a heavy Branchellion torpedinis leech load in the oral cavity, and the leeches were manually removed. A blood sample taken from a ventral wing vein showed hematocrit (HCT) levels at 1% (normal individual at 20%). Due to severe anemia and weakness the prognosis was poor, so a whole blood transfusion was carried out in an attempt to save the ray. A 20 kg cownose ray with a HCT of 35% served as the blood donor. Sixty ml of whole blood was collected from the donor into heparinized syringes at a ratio of 1:10 heparin to blood. The solution was then delivered directly to the recipient via a ventral wing vein, administered over a 25-minute time frame. The recipient received a prednisolone injection to minimize possible transfusion reaction, as well as antibiotics and supportive iron dextran and Vitamin B complex injections. Post-transfusion, a major cross match was performed with no signs of agglutination. One day following the transfusion, the recipient’s HCT had increased to 4.5%. Four days post- transfusion, the ray’s coloration had drastically improved, and the HCT had increased to 9.5%. Over subsequent days the ray began swimming with more vigor, and the HCT continued to increase. At 55 days post transfusion, the ray had a HCT of 22% and was behaving normally.
Comprehensive Blood Analysis of Free-Ranging Sandtiger Sharks (Carcharias taurus) In Delaware Bay - Dr. Tonya Clauss, Georgia Aquarium
Full Abstract
The sandtiger shark (Carcharias taurus) is a popular exhibit specimen among public aquaria. While ranges for hematologic, biochemistry, blood gas, nutritional and hormone parameters have been reported for sandtigers maintained under human care, ranges for these parameters have not been established for wild populations. The objectives of this project were to measure baseline health and nutritional indices of free-ranging sandtiger sharks in Delaware Bay. These data will not only contribute to the management of sandtigers under human care, but may also contribute to the development of a conservation plan for this species in the wild. During the summers of 2011 and 2012, 162 sandtiger sharks were captured via longline using non-barbed, circle hooks. Animals were positioned in dorsal recumbency, morphometric data was collected, and tooth, skin and blood samples were obtained. All sharks received a dart tag and adequately sized animals also received acoustic and/or satellite transponders. Blood was collected from the caudal tail vein, and blood gas values were immediately measured using a point of care analyzer (iSTAT, Abbott Labs, Princeton, NJ 08540). Blood samples were analyzed for additional indices including complete blood counts, blood cultures, comprehensive chemistries, trace minerals, heavy metals, vitamins, fatty acid profiles, sex and stress hormone levels and serum protein fractions via electrophoresis. Preliminary results suggest some variability amongst many of the individual parameters, and numerous analytes varied between those reported for managed sandtigers and this wild population.
4.6 Invertebrates
Invertebrates Topics
Public Display Aquatic Invertebrates: Medical Advances - Dr. Gregory A. Lewbart, NC State University, College of Veterinary Medicine
Full Abstract
Invertebrate animals comprise over 95% of animal species, yet non-parasitic invertebrates are vastly underrepresented in the typical veterinary school curriculum. This presentation will provide a brief introduction to the more prominent aquatic invertebrate groups (coelenterates, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, horseshoe crabs) and introduce some recent medical advances that apply to maintaining these species in captivity. Specific topics for review include: white patch disease of sponges, eversion syndrome of jellyfishes, aspergillosis of soft corals, white and brown jelly syndrome of hard corals, growth anomalies of Acropora spp. and Montipora spp., acroporid serratiosis, green algal disease and pharmacokinetics in horseshoe crabs, diet-induced shell disease of crustaceans, and pain recognition in shore crabs. The emerging and important topic of animal welfare for aquatic invertebrates also will be reviewed.
Host Susceptibility As A Primary Driver Of Shell Disease - Michael Tlusty, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
Anyone who has tried to exhibit crustaceans has noticed at some point, black spots and possibly even lesions will appear on the shell, a condition known as shell disease. At best, it looks bad from an exhibit standpoint. At worst, it can cause mortality. Any disease is caused by a triad of factors - a viable pathogen exists in the right environment in the presence of a susceptible host. Many aquatic pathogens such as those causing shell disease, are bacterial, and are always present to some extent in exhibits. The exhibits, ideally (from the aquarist's point of view) remain constant. Therefore, with two factors remaining constant, disease events such as shell disease cycle as a result of changes in the susceptibility of the host. To understand shell disease better, our laboratory has intentionally stressed American lobsters to increase their susceptibility. Through this method, we can intentionally cause shell disease, and allows us to look at patterns of infection. Once the lobster has shell disease, we can then figure out how to get them to be less susceptible. Poor nutrition is one of the easiest ways to make lobsters susceptible, and this talk I will link the science of shell disease to some best practices for exhibiting crustacean to keep them healthy and looking good.
Advancements in the Management of Sea Star Wasting Syndrome in Aquaria - Melissa Bishop, Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium
Full Abstract
In the State of Washington, Sea Star Wasting Syndrome (SSWS) was first observed during the summer of 2013. It has now spread to sea star populations all along the West Coast of North America. SSWS events have occurred in the past, but the range and severity of the current outbreak is unprecedented. The Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium (PDZA) is geographically located on Puget Sound, and has been significantly impacted by SSWS with the loss of over 80% of exhibit sea stars. Success in halting, and in some cases reversing the syndrome has been observed in PDZA’s sea star collection with the use of Sulfamethoxazole Trimethoprim immersion baths. This presentation will briefly review what is presently known about SSWS, give an overview of the SSWS research program at PDZA, and offer recommendations for moving forward in successfully managing SSWS in closed and open sea water aquariums.
Stop Exposing Yourself: A Self-Help Guide ... to Anemone Quarantine - Gavin Moecklin, Audubon Aquarium of the Americas
Full Abstract
There is very little literature about common disease processes within anemones and even less about potential therapeutic modalities to treat and acclimate these animals in captivity. We attempt to classify and construe a quarantine protocol based on past experiences, anecdotal information, and histopathology reports.
Over the span of a year, two anemone species, Heteractis magnifica and Stichodactyla haddoni, were obtained from various marine animal suppliers. Animals were isolated into a 37.8 L glass enclosure which was placed in a 378 L fiberglass tray filled with water to help regulate temperature. The animals were given PVC pipe connections to attach to. A small powerhead separated by egg crate was also put into the enclosure to provide flow over the animal. Animals that died during the process were sent off for histopathology. Based off this information a quarantine protocol involving high flow, good water quality, and antimicrobial immersion bath therapies were developed. Antimicrobial therapy included immersive baths of Ciprofloxacin at 6.6 mg/L for 24 hours for 7 days with 50-100% daily water changes based on water quality. This was followed by an additional 3 days of observation with 50-100% daily water changes. The anemones were not fed during this time. Pictures of the anemones were taken and given daily scores on a scale of 1-10 based on observed health. A score of 1 being perfectly healthy and a score of 10 being nearly deceased. After 10 days of treatment, anemones with scores ≤2 were placed in mature holding systems and fed 3-4 times per week. Anemones were considered clear and healthy after one month of consistent feeding and inflation. While the use of Ciprofloxacin did appear to have a positive effect on the acclimation of anemones to captivity, the authors of this paper cannot stress enough the importance of responsible suppliers. Though all anemones received showed signs of shipping stress and irregular inflation and deflation, not surprisingly the highest survival rates were associated with animals that arrived inflated. Histopathology of submitted samples revealed ciliate organisms, amoeba, bacilli bacteria, and cestodes. This study attempts to describe potential pathogens affecting anemones and possible therapeutic modalities for acclimation and quarantine protocols.
Over the span of a year, two anemone species, Heteractis magnifica and Stichodactyla haddoni, were obtained from various marine animal suppliers. Animals were isolated into a 37.8 L glass enclosure which was placed in a 378 L fiberglass tray filled with water to help regulate temperature. The animals were given PVC pipe connections to attach to. A small powerhead separated by egg crate was also put into the enclosure to provide flow over the animal. Animals that died during the process were sent off for histopathology. Based off this information a quarantine protocol involving high flow, good water quality, and antimicrobial immersion bath therapies were developed. Antimicrobial therapy included immersive baths of Ciprofloxacin at 6.6 mg/L for 24 hours for 7 days with 50-100% daily water changes based on water quality. This was followed by an additional 3 days of observation with 50-100% daily water changes. The anemones were not fed during this time. Pictures of the anemones were taken and given daily scores on a scale of 1-10 based on observed health. A score of 1 being perfectly healthy and a score of 10 being nearly deceased. After 10 days of treatment, anemones with scores ≤2 were placed in mature holding systems and fed 3-4 times per week. Anemones were considered clear and healthy after one month of consistent feeding and inflation. While the use of Ciprofloxacin did appear to have a positive effect on the acclimation of anemones to captivity, the authors of this paper cannot stress enough the importance of responsible suppliers. Though all anemones received showed signs of shipping stress and irregular inflation and deflation, not surprisingly the highest survival rates were associated with animals that arrived inflated. Histopathology of submitted samples revealed ciliate organisms, amoeba, bacilli bacteria, and cestodes. This study attempts to describe potential pathogens affecting anemones and possible therapeutic modalities for acclimation and quarantine protocols.
Building a Horseshoe Crab Health Crystal Ball: Tracking Limulus polyphemus Hemolymph Cell Counts and Chemistry Profiles from Acquisition through Managed Care - Pilar J. Nelson, Jill E. Arnold, Catherine A. Hadfield, Leigh A. Clayton, National Aquarium
Full Abstract
As part of a commitment to improve the health of horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) under managed care, techniques were developed to monitor cell counts and hemolymph chemistry values. Hemolymph was analyzed from 22 horseshoe crabs obtained from Delaware Bay and subsequently maintained at the National Aquarium in Baltimore. Hemocyte counts and 23 biochemical parameters were measured in hemolymph samples collected at multiple time points; acquisition, exiting quarantine, and subsequent 4-6 month intervals. Changes through time were observed in hemocyte numbers, electrolytes, lipase, and triglycerides. In addition to monitoring cell counts and chemistry values over time, data collected from study crabs that died provide an opportunity to evaluate differences between sick and presumed healthy animals and identify potential key health indicators, like copper, protein, and glucose. As reference data for this species is limited, the results should help in assessing horseshoe crab health as well as evaluating responses to husbandry changes.
Applying vertebrate concepts to invertebrates for long-term health and conservation - Meghan Holst, Oregon Coast Aquarium
Full Abstract
Facilities operating under the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) guidelines meet specific standards on physiological, nutritional and environmental needs for vertebrate animal husbandry. However, expanding these standards for invertebrates is still underdeveloped. While AZA is gradually increasing the production of invertebrate manuals, it is important that aquariums advance this effort by more thoroughly assessing invertebrate health and behavior. The Oregon Coast Aquarium has recently increased evaluation of invertebrate health in Macrocheira kaempferi, Enteroctopus dofleini, Pisaster ochraceus, and Patiria miniata via blood analysis and behavioral matrices. This novel data creates baselines of behavior and blood chemistry that aids in more definitive etiology for outbreaks (e.g. Sea Star Wasting Syndrome), provides unbiased understanding of invertebrate behavior (e.g. octopus senescence), and allows for comprehensive evaluation of husbandry practices. Data collected under this study provides templates and discussion for AZA facilities to take necessary steps towards improved invertebrate husbandry and conservation.
5. Live Foods
Live Foods Topics
1985 Called - They Want Their Artemia Methods Back - Dr. Andrew Rhyne, Roger Williams University / The New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
Artemia production is one of the most important aspects of a successful hatchery, playing a crucial role in larval rearing protocols. For public aquariums, they are the go-to feed for jellyfish. Yet when was the last time your institution updated its protocols? Do you still use oil-based enrichments? In the Roger Williams University/New England Aquarium larval rearing workshops, one of the most popular topics among participants has been the best method of Artemia production. These workshops demonstrated that most participants were unaware of key factors, including: 1) the damage they were doing to Artemia during harvesting; 2) how to separate the hatching envelope from nauplii; 3) how to properly enrich Artemia, and; 4) how to cold-store Artemia to reduce costs, space and labor. This talk will review the latest and most up-to-date Artemia protocols, and will challenge institutions to question their current methods.
From Cyst to Adult: Low-Budget Hacks for In-House Artemia salina Cultures - Morgan A. Lindemayer, New England Aquarium
Full Abstract
The common brine shrimp, Artemia salina, have been utilized as a live food in the aquarium industry since the 1920s. They provide a quality high protein diet leading to the greater survival rates, faster growth rates and fuller color development of their consumers. Many institutions dedicate financial resources on ordering live Artemia to support juvenile fishes or high maintenance species. The New England Aquarium has allocated this expense into successfully creating an in-house culture that sustains the institution using a low-cost, low-maintenance design incorporating hatching cones, grow-out barrels, and cold storage methods. Not only has this culture served to put money back into the aquarium and increase our sustainability, it also allows for a healthier product. Having control over the culture conditions of our live foods gives us more control over what we are adding to our tanks and feeding our fishes, leading to a more successful and viable collection.
A Simple, Low-Cost, Low-Maintenance Design for In-House Live Brine Shrimp Culture - Shelley L. Anthony, North Carolina Aquarium at Fort Fisher
Full Abstract
The common brine shrimp Artemia salina is an important component of dietary requirements for public aquariums. Many aquariums spend a significant percentage of their food budget on importing live Artemia for feeding newly acquired and/or wild-caught specimens, or for supporting high maintenance species such as syngnathids. The North Carolina Aquarium at Fort Fisher (NCAFF) has successfully incorporated several methodologies for live brine shrimp culture into a low-maintenance design that utilizes a simple system including a hatch out bucket, 6 individual grow-out tubes and two “harvest barrels” for HUFA enrichment. Since 2006, this in-house setup has provided an average of 1 lb (0.5 kg) of enriched adult Artemia per week, yet requires less than 2 hours/week to maintain. The level of production is easily adapted to individual aquarium needs, and the design is especially advantageous for facilities struggling with limited space. The estimated total cost of in-house production is approximately 35% that of importing adult live brine from standard suppliers. Most importantly, the ready availability of multiple stages of live Artemia is critical to the successful propagation of seahorses and other species at the NCAFF.
The Frugal Rotifer Reactor: Raising Rotifers on a Budget - Mako Fukuwa and Chris Okamoto, Cabrillo Marine Aquarium
Full Abstract
Brachionus plicatilis (or L Type Rotifers) are commonly used as live foods for corals, sea jellies and hatchling fish. Keeping a large culture going for any length of time is often a challenging experience. Over the years the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium has gone through many trials and tribulations while raising rotifers and hope to share some techniques that will save you time and money. We can reliably expect to harvest approximately 30 million rotifers for a paltry $1.25 per day using yeast as a main food source and supplemented with algae paste. Looking for a smaller alternative to a large rotifer reactor? We will also share with you our 70 liter DIY rotifer reactor build.
Closed System Production of Americamysis bahia - Mark Schick, John G. Shedd Aquarium
6. Cephalopods
6.1 Cephalopods General
Cephalopods General Topics
Let's Get Kraken: Managing a Diverse Collection of Octopuses - Christopher Payne, Monterey Bay Aquarium
Full Abstract
The new cephalopod gallery, Tentacles: Astounding Lives of Octopuses, Squid and Cuttlefishes has allowed us to work with over ten species of octopuses from around the world. We have worked through several challenges while learning different husbandry methods and techniques for each species and how each species best fits into our exhibit needs.
The exhibit features five octopus exhibits but we accommodate several other species behind the scenes in a number of different holding areas. Since the initial inception of research and development for the gallery, we have worked with 11 confirmed species and 3 unknowns. These animals are held in tanks ranging from 10 gallons to our exhibit, 483 gallons.
The greatest challenges are the short life spans, sourcing the animals, and finding a balance between exhibitry and proper animal care
The exhibit features five octopus exhibits but we accommodate several other species behind the scenes in a number of different holding areas. Since the initial inception of research and development for the gallery, we have worked with 11 confirmed species and 3 unknowns. These animals are held in tanks ranging from 10 gallons to our exhibit, 483 gallons.
The greatest challenges are the short life spans, sourcing the animals, and finding a balance between exhibitry and proper animal care
Water Quality Considerations and Life Support System Design for Cephalopods - Barrett L. Christie, Dallas Zoo
Full Abstract
The captive management of cephalopods necessitates the maintenance of water quality within precise ranges. Cephalopods have a microvillus epidermis that is one cell layer thick and contains many pores, increasing the overall surface area. The increased surface area and permeability make cephalopods highly sensitive to the chemistry and bacterial load of surrounding water. In addition to an inherent chemical sensitivity, cephalopods also possess increased metabolic rates; as much as two to three times higher than teleost fishes. As such, cephalopods produce increased amounts of nitrogenous wastes (NH3/NO2) which must be oxidized by nitrification in closed systems below 0.10 mg/L. Cephalopods are also highly sensitive to nitrate concentrations well below acceptable thresholds for fishes (50-80 mg/L). Thus, life support strategies must address these particular aspects of water quality to ensure animal welfare. Decades of laboratory culture have provided insights into the most effective filtration components to meet the unique demands of these animals. Life support systems in laboratories and public aquaria typically employ mechanical filtration followed by foam fractionation, biofiltration, activated carbon, and sterilization before returning water to the exhibit. Filtration strategies designed with the unique physiology of cephalopods in mind are best suited to meet their stringent needs for water quality and facilitate good husbandry.
The amazing brains and morphing skin of octopuses and other cephalopods | TED Talk - Roger Hanlon, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA
Full Abstract
Octopus, squid and cuttlefish -- collectively known as cephalopods -- have strange, massive, distributed brains. What do they do with all that neural power? Dive into the ocean with marine biologist Roger Hanlon, who shares astonishing footage of the camouflaging abilities of cephalopods, which can change their skin color and texture in a flash. Learn how their smart skin, and their ability to deploy it in sophisticated ways, could be evidence of an alternative form of intelligence -- and how it could lead to breakthroughs in AI, fabrics, cosmetics and beyond.
6.2 Cuttlefish and Squids
Cuttlefish and Squids Topics
The Missing INK - Innovations to Cuttlefish and Squid Husbandry - Bret Grasse, Marine Biological Laboratory
Full Abstract
We shall have no better conditions in the future if we are satisfied with all those which we have at present – Thomas Edison. Aquariums have been keeping squid and cuttlefish for decades without significant evolution in species diversity and husbandry methods. Our industry knows relatively very little about cephalopods compared to other commonly displayed freshwater and marine organisms. In order to continue advancing our knowledge of cephalopods in aquaria, we need to continually investigate ways to optimize cephalopod husbandry. Areas to be improved upon are feeding methods, artificial incubation, maximizing reproduction, in vitro fertilization, and transfer methods. Cephalopods are a rapidly emerging model organism for numerous objectives, not only for public display but also biomedical applications, neural research, soft robotics, behavior studies, and genomics, to name a few. This makes it increasingly important to better understand this group of animals and promote their longevity and culture in aquaria over time.
Interview with a Vampire Squid: Advances in the Collection and Display of Deep-Sea Cephalopods - Alicia Bitondo, Monterey Bay Aquarium
Full Abstract
In preparation for a show featuring the diversity of cephalopods, MBA’s husbandry team has worked its way down an ambitious list of target species. The challenges associated with exhibiting cephalopods are well known in the aquarium world, but the most daunting and unorthodox of our goals was to display deep-sea cephalopods. To develop a husbandry protocol for a type of animal few people have ever seen, let alone tried to keep alive in captivity, we’ve had to get really creative. Over the last 18 months we’ve supplemented our own knowledge with lots of reading, a fair bit of trial and error, and a growing partnership with our sister institution, the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). Our Aquarium’s founder David Packard had a particular fascination with the deep sea, and so he supported the formation of MBARI in 1987. One of the founding members of the institution, deep-sea pioneer Bruce Robison, remains the head of the Midwater Laboratory at MBARI. Using remotely operated vehicles (ROV), his team observes and collects inhabitants of the Monterey Submarine Canyon from as far down as 3,000 meters. When we approached them with the proposition of collaboration, we learned that Robison’s current post doctorate fellow happened to be an expert in deep-sea cephalopods, a perfect match for our collecting goals. Since 2012, MBA’s husbandry team has assisted with and eventually begun leading ROV expeditions to collect deep-sea squids and octopuses. Our current record for longevity of an animal is 28 days, with a specimen of Vampyroteuthis infernalis that fed in captivity on multiple occasions in mid-2013. We have experimented with many different collection, transport and husbandry techniques, and to date have kept over 30 individual animals from 10 distinct species. This past January, one of our Opisthoteuthis or “Dumbo” octopuses laid the first documented clutch of cirrate octopus eggs in captivity. This demonstrates how our progress benefits not only the aquarium community, but the research community as well. This talk will outline the inception, progression and current status of our deep-sea cephalopod program, including a discussion of life support, display techniques, species descriptions, and of course, lots of sweet footage of deep-sea animals.
A Cuttlefish of a Different Color: Investigating Body Patterning in Metasepia pfefferi -
Amber Thomas, The Seas, Walt Disney World
Full Abstract
Cuttlefish are known for their ability to quickly alter their appearance to camouflage or to communicate information to predators, prey and conspecifics. Like any form of communication, a visual communication system is limited by the number of signals that are recognizable between individuals. To better understand the behavior of these animals, their signaling systems and thus their body patterns have been extensively studied in some species of cuttlefish. Unfortunately, they have never been thoroughly investigated in the Flamboyant cuttlefish (Metasepia pfefferi) and thus all behavioral and communicatory inferences are based on studies of other species. This study aimed to identify all of the components of M. pfefferi body patterns that are visible to the human eye and to determine the most probable number of patterns used by this species. It was determined that aquarium-raised M. pfefferi generated 89 chromatic, 10 textural, 16 postural and 8 locomotor components which were combined to create 11 distinct patterns. Unlike other species of cuttlefish, none of the 11 most probable patterns appeared to be useful for camouflage in their current environment, suggesting that this species used its appearance-altering abilities to communicate more frequently than to camouflage. Similarly, 8 of the 11 identified patterns contained at least one “moving” component in which the colors on the skin appeared to travel on the animal’s mantle. In other species, these “moving” components were generally only seen during feeding or aggression, but M. pfefferi utilizes them frequently in a variety of contexts. These findings indicate the necessity to study the body patterns and communication methods in various species of cuttlefish to better understand their species specific behavior.
6.3 Octopuses
Octopuses Topics
Octopus bimacu...wait, which one am I trying to rear again? Who cares - it’s an octo project! But really, it was bimaculatus - Artie Ahr, California Science Center
Full Abstract
Attempts were made at rearing O. bimaculatus paralarvae. Settlement is low due to high mortality rates as these require adequate nutrition and upwelling. This project utilized different tank designs with the same feeding schedules. The tanks were stocked with copepods and progressively different sized foods were introduced. Settlement was not achieved, however presettlement behaviors were observed. The longest living paralarvae lived for at least 28 days in tank design “A”, 19 days in tank design “B”, and up
to 47 days in tank design C. Survivorship rates were as follows for tank design A: Day 7: 43.8%
Day 14: 24.7%
Day 21: 5.5% Day 28: .06%
This surpasses the previous DPH success of 6 recorded by Ambrose in 1983.
Octopuses were collected on exhibit under natural hatching as well as hatched artificially in a manifold with no significant difference in survivorship. From our results, it seems that the pseudokreisel was the best set up for the paralarvae, and additional work should be done on exploring these techniques
to 47 days in tank design C. Survivorship rates were as follows for tank design A: Day 7: 43.8%
Day 14: 24.7%
Day 21: 5.5% Day 28: .06%
This surpasses the previous DPH success of 6 recorded by Ambrose in 1983.
Octopuses were collected on exhibit under natural hatching as well as hatched artificially in a manifold with no significant difference in survivorship. From our results, it seems that the pseudokreisel was the best set up for the paralarvae, and additional work should be done on exploring these techniques
Informing the trophic dynamics of the giant Pacific octopus across Alaska through the application of stable isotope analysis - Ben Jevons, Alaska Pacific University
Two New Species of Octopus for Display: Coconut and Larger Pacific Striped Octopus - Marisa Avila, Steinhart Aquarium, California Academy of Sciences
Full Abstract
Octopuses are one of the most captivating and crowd pleasing exhibit animals in public aquariums. The California Academy of Sciences is proud to be the first public aquarium to display two unique species of octopus: the Coconut Octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus), and a currently undescribed Central American species, the Larger Pacific Striped Octopus (LPSO). This presentation will discuss collection, display, husbandry and research of these engaging cephalopods.
6.4 Nautilus
Nautilus Topics
Chambering the Chambered Nautilus: Raising Nautilus pompilius hatchlings in pressure chambers - Ellen Umeda, Monterey Bay Aquarium
Full Abstract
Chambered nautilus eggs have never been found in the wild and rarely hatch out in public aquariums. As a result, determining the appropriate parameters for a sustainable culture has proved challenging. In the wild, nautiluses live at depth under high pressure. This pressure at depth likely influences the rate and development of new chambers in the shell of a nautilus. The Monterey Bay Aquarium built pressure chambers to examine the life span of nautilus hatchlings when kept under pressure. In addition, we hatched eggs and raised hatchlings at various temperatures to examine the effects on hatch rate and life span. In total, the Monterey Bay Aquarium hatched out 16 hatchlings with the longest living 167 days. Although our results remain inconclusive, we expanded our nautilus culturing knowledge and created a foundation for new ideas and methods moving forward.
Can You Teach an Old Nautilus New Tricks? - Gregory Jeff Barord, CUNY – Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Full Abstract
Living nautiluses are members of an ancient lineage that can be traced back nearly 500 million years, long before mammals, dinosaurs, insects or sharks were even around. However, even after nearly 500 million years of environmental change and evolutionary adaptation, living nautiluses still closely resemble their fossilized ancestors and are thus called “living fossils.” The closest living relatives to nautiluses are octopuses, squid and cuttlefish but there are significant differences between them. Aside from the presence of a shell, the nautilus nervous system is less developed than that of other cephalopods and is a primary reason why nautiluses have been labeled as unintelligent or just plain “dumb.” However, recent evidence suggests that nautiluses possess similar learning and memory capabilities as other cephalopods. In this presentation, we show that nautiluses use visual cues within their environment to navigate an experimental maze and change their behavior depending on the location of a “homing beacon.” The nautiluses were conditioned to locate the beacon during five training trials. Next, a sixth “probe” (or test) trial was conducted by either removing the beacon or shifting the beacon 45° or 90° from the original location. During each probe trial, the behavior of the nautiluses changed as a result of the change in beacon location. This suggests that nautiluses are capable of different types of learning strategies and have the behavioral flexibility to alter their actions based on their environment. These results shed light on the evolution of the nervous system in cephalopods, but also may provide relevant information related to their captive care.
Fuzzy Wuzzy Was a ... Nautilus! Rediscovering a lost species (Allonautilus scrobiculatus) - Gregory J. Barord, CUNY Brooklyn College
Full Abstract
Nautiluses are disappearing. Nautiluses are disappearing because humans are mining them to extinction. Humans are mining nautiluses to extinction so they can have their shell, or a necklace, or an earring. Humans are loving nautiluses to death. Nautiluses are dying because of this love. It’s time for humans to love the right way. Allonautilus scrobiculatus is the new nautilus on the scene. Also called the fuzzy nautilus, Allonautilus represents a new genera of nautiloid evolution in a couple million years. The whole idea of nautiluses being ‘living fossils’ is being challenged. Nautiluses are highly evolved cephalopods adapting to their environment just like anything other species. Papua New Guinea represents the only confirmed place where Allonautilus scrobiculatus exists. To top it off, A. scrobiculatus exists sympatrically with Nautilus pompilius. Papua New Guinea also represents an area of the world ripe for expansion and industrialization, evidenced by recent mining operations in the deep sea already being approved. What could this mean for the fuzzy, wuzzy nautilus? What could this mean for the not so fuzzy, wuzzy nautilus? What could this mean for the deep sea ecosystem as a whole? What could this mean for Papua New Guinea? The World? In August 2015, our team traveled to Papua New Guinea to address these questions. Working with the local Mbunai tribe, we used a combination of methods, including underwater video, ultrasonic transmitters, and genetic analyses, to survey Allonautilus, Nautilus, and the deep sea ecosystem they share. What we were left with was hope, trepidation, thankfulness, and fear. The history of nautiluses shows us that they have survived for hundreds of millions of years, through all five mass extinctions. The future is less clear. How will humans continue to love nautiluses? How will you love nautiluses in the future?
6.5 Welfare Issues, Senescence, Behavior, and Enrichment
Welfare Issues, Senescence, Behavior, and Enrichment Topics
Cephalopod Behaviour - Dr. Roger Hanlon, Senior Scientist at MBL TONMOCON 2018 Marine Biological Laboratory Woods Hole, MA
Full Abstract
The 2nd edition of this book (2017, Cambridge University Press; with coauthor John Messenger) summarizes the wealth of exciting new research data stemming from over 500 papers published since the 1st volume appeared in 1996. It adopts a comparative approach to causation, function, development and evolution as it explores cephalopod behavior in natural habitats and the laboratory. Each of the 11 chapters will be explained and illustrated in this presentation. Extensive color and black-and-white photography and video illustrate various aspects of cephalopod behavior to complement the scientific analyses. Covering the major octopus, squid and cuttlefish species, as well as the shelled Nautilus, this is an essential resource for undergraduate and advanced students of animal behavior, as well as researchers new to cephalopods, in fields such as neuroscience and conservation biology. By highlighting the gaps in current knowledge, the text looks to inform and to stimulate future study of these beautiful animals.
Implications of the physiological changes during senescence on the welfare of the giant Pacific octopus - Meghan Holst, Aquarium of the Bay
Applying vertebrate concepts to invertebrates for long-term health and conservation - Meghan Holst, Oregon Coast Aquarium
Full Abstract
Facilities operating under the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) guidelines meet specific standards on physiological, nutritional and environmental needs for vertebrate animal husbandry. However, expanding these standards for invertebrates is still underdeveloped. While AZA is gradually increasing the production of invertebrate manuals, it is important that aquariums advance this effort by more thoroughly assessing invertebrate health and behavior. The Oregon Coast Aquarium has recently increased evaluation of invertebrate health in Macrocheira kaempferi, Enteroctopus dofleini, Pisaster ochraceus, and Patiria miniata via blood analysis and behavioral matrices. This novel data creates baselines of behavior and blood chemistry that aids in more definitive etiology for outbreaks (e.g. Sea Star Wasting Syndrome), provides unbiased understanding of invertebrate behavior (e.g. octopus senescence), and allows for comprehensive evaluation of husbandry practices. Data collected under this study provides templates and discussion for AZA facilities to take necessary steps towards improved invertebrate husbandry and conservation.
Measuring Hormones in Cephalopods: a New Noninvasive Technique - Stephanie Chancellor, PhD candidate at University of Illinois at Chicago TONMOCON 2018 Marine Biological Laboratory Woods Hole, MA
6.6 Additional Resources
Articles and More
AZA Giant Pacific Octopus Animal Care Manual
https://assets.speakcdn.com/assets/2332/giant_pacific_octopus_care_manual_final_9514.pdf
BIAZA GPO Care Manual
https://www.thecephalopodpage.org/_pdf/Giant%20Pacific%20Octopus%20husbandry%20BIAZA.pdf
Anderson, R. C. (1995). Aquarium Husbandry of the Giant Pacific Octopus. Drum and Croaker, 26, 14–23.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/1995.pdf
Roland Anderson James Wood, et al.- Octopus Senescence:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7545324_Octopus_Senescence_The_Beginning_of_the_End
Anderson, R. C., & Wood, J. B. (2012). Raising Baby Octopuses. Drum and Croaker, 43, 34–40.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2012.pdf
Anderson, R. C., & Wood, J. B. (2009). Feeding Octopuses Live Crabs is Good Enrichment. Drum and Croaker, 40, 9–11.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2009.pdf
Anderson, R. C. (2008). Novel Foods as Enrichment for Giant Pacific Octopuses (GPOs) Drum and Croaker, 39, 62–65.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2008.pdf
Barord, G. (2011) Post-Mortem Analysis of Cuttlebones Provides Critical Insight into the Natural History of Captive Cuttlefish, Sepia
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2011.pdf
Delbeek, J. C. (2002). Husbandry of the Big-Fin Reef Squid (Sepiateuthis lessoniana) at the Waikiki Aquarium. Drum and Croaker, 33, 35–37.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2002.pdf
Grasse, B. (2014) The Biological Characteristics, Life Cycle, and System Design for the Flamboyant and Paintpot Cuttlefish, Metasepia sp., Cultured Through Multiple Generations
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2014.pdf
Hanlon and Forsythe. 1985. Advances in the Laboratory Culture of Octopus for Biomedical Research. Laboratory Animal Science. 35(1):33-40
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/19179900_Advances_in_the_laboratory_culture_of_Octopus_for_biomedical_research
Iglesias et al. 2004. Completed Life Cycle of Octopus vulgaris in culture. Aquaculture International. 12:481-487
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jose-Iglesias-16/publication/227115506_The_Completed_Life_Cycle_of_the_Octopus_Octopus_vulgaris_Cuvier_under_Culture_Conditions_Paralarval_Rearing_using_Artemia_and_Zoeae_and_First_Data_on_Juvenile_Growth_up_to_8_Months_of_Age/links/00463535e00081516a000000/The-Completed-Life-Cycle-of-the-Octopus-Octopus-vulgaris-Cuvier-under-Culture-Conditions-Paralarval-Rearing-using-Artemia-and-Zoeae-and-First-Data-on-Juvenile-Growth-up-to-8-Months-of-Age.pdf
Ross, R. (2010). Display, Husbandry and Breeding of Dwarf Cuttle, Sepia bandensis, at the California Academy of Sciences Drum and Croaker, 41, 8–16.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2010.pdf
Relevant Articles from TONMO (online community of both researchers and hobbyists)
https://tonmo.com/articles/octopus-bimaculoides-care-sheet-two-spot-octopus.6/
https://tonmo.com/articles/packing-and-shipping-cephalopods.15/
https://tonmo.com/articles/octopus-pet-checklist-before-you-get-an-octopus-as-a-pet.3/
https://tonmo.com/articles/pdfs-a-collection-of-cephalopod-papers.33/
https://tonmo.com/articles/sepia-bandensis-husbandry-and-breeding.11/
https://tonmo.com/articles/ceph-care-past-and-future.7/ https://tonmo.com/articles/before-you-buy-a-cuttlefish.8/
European Standards for Cephalopod Welfare
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0023677215580006
British Husbandry Guide for Sepia plangon
https://aszk.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Invertebrates.-Mourning-Cuttlefish-2012KM.pdf
https://assets.speakcdn.com/assets/2332/giant_pacific_octopus_care_manual_final_9514.pdf
BIAZA GPO Care Manual
https://www.thecephalopodpage.org/_pdf/Giant%20Pacific%20Octopus%20husbandry%20BIAZA.pdf
Anderson, R. C. (1995). Aquarium Husbandry of the Giant Pacific Octopus. Drum and Croaker, 26, 14–23.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/1995.pdf
Roland Anderson James Wood, et al.- Octopus Senescence:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7545324_Octopus_Senescence_The_Beginning_of_the_End
Anderson, R. C., & Wood, J. B. (2012). Raising Baby Octopuses. Drum and Croaker, 43, 34–40.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2012.pdf
Anderson, R. C., & Wood, J. B. (2009). Feeding Octopuses Live Crabs is Good Enrichment. Drum and Croaker, 40, 9–11.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2009.pdf
Anderson, R. C. (2008). Novel Foods as Enrichment for Giant Pacific Octopuses (GPOs) Drum and Croaker, 39, 62–65.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2008.pdf
Barord, G. (2011) Post-Mortem Analysis of Cuttlebones Provides Critical Insight into the Natural History of Captive Cuttlefish, Sepia
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2011.pdf
Delbeek, J. C. (2002). Husbandry of the Big-Fin Reef Squid (Sepiateuthis lessoniana) at the Waikiki Aquarium. Drum and Croaker, 33, 35–37.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2002.pdf
Grasse, B. (2014) The Biological Characteristics, Life Cycle, and System Design for the Flamboyant and Paintpot Cuttlefish, Metasepia sp., Cultured Through Multiple Generations
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2014.pdf
Hanlon and Forsythe. 1985. Advances in the Laboratory Culture of Octopus for Biomedical Research. Laboratory Animal Science. 35(1):33-40
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/19179900_Advances_in_the_laboratory_culture_of_Octopus_for_biomedical_research
Iglesias et al. 2004. Completed Life Cycle of Octopus vulgaris in culture. Aquaculture International. 12:481-487
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jose-Iglesias-16/publication/227115506_The_Completed_Life_Cycle_of_the_Octopus_Octopus_vulgaris_Cuvier_under_Culture_Conditions_Paralarval_Rearing_using_Artemia_and_Zoeae_and_First_Data_on_Juvenile_Growth_up_to_8_Months_of_Age/links/00463535e00081516a000000/The-Completed-Life-Cycle-of-the-Octopus-Octopus-vulgaris-Cuvier-under-Culture-Conditions-Paralarval-Rearing-using-Artemia-and-Zoeae-and-First-Data-on-Juvenile-Growth-up-to-8-Months-of-Age.pdf
Ross, R. (2010). Display, Husbandry and Breeding of Dwarf Cuttle, Sepia bandensis, at the California Academy of Sciences Drum and Croaker, 41, 8–16.
http://drumandcroaker.org/pdf/2010.pdf
Relevant Articles from TONMO (online community of both researchers and hobbyists)
https://tonmo.com/articles/octopus-bimaculoides-care-sheet-two-spot-octopus.6/
https://tonmo.com/articles/packing-and-shipping-cephalopods.15/
https://tonmo.com/articles/octopus-pet-checklist-before-you-get-an-octopus-as-a-pet.3/
https://tonmo.com/articles/pdfs-a-collection-of-cephalopod-papers.33/
https://tonmo.com/articles/sepia-bandensis-husbandry-and-breeding.11/
https://tonmo.com/articles/ceph-care-past-and-future.7/ https://tonmo.com/articles/before-you-buy-a-cuttlefish.8/
European Standards for Cephalopod Welfare
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0023677215580006
British Husbandry Guide for Sepia plangon
https://aszk.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Invertebrates.-Mourning-Cuttlefish-2012KM.pdf
7. Jellies
7.1 Introduction and Exhibitry
Introduction and Exhibitry Topics
LSS and Exhibit Design for Pelagic Gelatinous Species - Edward Seidel, Tenji, Inc.
Full Abstract
Pelagic gelatinous animals like cnidarians, ctenophores, and pteropods present a number of challenges for captive display: they are often difficult to culture or capture in the wild, their bodies are physically delicate, they have unique Life Support System (LSS) needs, and they require specialized enclosures and food. In order to successfully design exhibits for these animals, it is essential to understand the biomechanics of the different phyla of gelatinous organisms. Through the use of fluorescein dye injected into the pathway of swimming jellies, we can elucidate the ideal flow regime and enclosure design for displays through the visualization of these flow patterns. Kreisels (pseudo, true, or stretch) are better suited for ctenophores, pteropods, and “weak swimming” cnidarians, while “active” swimming cnidarians can be maintained in a variety of tanks shapes and flow regimes. The fluorescein dye technique is also helpful for visualization of the flow fields around system injection boxes and allows one to find areas where flow may damage jellies. LSS components are critical to a well-designed system. Foam fractionators have a large impact on the concentration of DOC (dissolved organic carbon), which negatively affects the uptake of dissolved nutrients for some gelatinous species. Other key LSS components, such as de-gas towers, light (both for exhibit lighting and as a component of LSS), heat exchangers, pumps, kreisels and other tank designs, and the use of LSS bypasses are essential to good design.